IDEAL MODEL FOR INVESTIGATING URBAN FORM EFFECTS ON URBAN HEAT ISLAND AND OUTDOOR THERMAL COMFORT: A REVIEW
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29121/ijoest.v6.i1.2022.275Keywords:
Urban Heat Island, Outdoor Thermal Comfort, Urban Form, Conceptual ModelAbstract
In recent decades, urban planners have endeavoured to mitigate climate change, by adaptation programs in order to alleviate its adverse effects on human health and wellbeing. Outdoor thermal comfort as an environmental factor affects human health, as proven by various research studies conducted in different climates. The aim of this paper is to explore the components of urban heat island, outdoor thermal comfort, and urban form. The relationship between these keywords and variables that affect outdoor thermal comfort was also analysed. The research method is descriptive-analytical and besides that, the qualitative research method has been used. The components of each keyword have been extracted based on professional theories. Finally, the ideal model of outdoor thermal comfort is proposed. This paper gives a comprehensive view to urban heat islands, urban form and outdoor thermal comfort
Downloads
References
Aboelata, A., & Sodoudi, S. (2020). Evaluating the effect of trees on UHI mitigation and reduction of energy usage in different built up areas in Cairo. Building and Environment, 168, 106490. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106490
Abreu-Harbich, L. V., Labaki, L. C., & Matzarakis, A. (2014). Thermal bioclimate in idealized urban street canyons in Campinas, Brazil Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 115(1-2), 115-223. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-013-0886-0
Berdahl, P., Akbari, H., and Rose, L. S. (2002) Aging of reflective roofs : soot deposition. Applied optics, 41(12), 2355-2360. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.41.002355
Akbari, H. (2005). Energy Saving Potentials and Air Quality Benefits of Urban HeatIslandMitigation : Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Akbari, H., & Konopacki, S. (2004). Energy effects of heat-island reduction strategies in Toronto, Canada. Energy, 29(2), 191-210. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2003.09.004
Akbari, H., Bretz, S., Kurn, D. M., & Hanford, J. (1997). Peak power and cooling energy savings of high-albedo roofs. Energy and Buildings, 25(2), 117-126. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(96)01001-8
Akbari, H., Pomerantz, M., & Taha, H. (2001). Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce energy use and improve air quality in urban areas. Solar Energy, 70(3), 295-310. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-092X(00)00089-X
Ali-Toudert, F. (2005). Dependence of Outdoor Thermal Comfort on Street Design in Hot and Dry Climate. (PhD Thesis), institute of meteorology, Freiburg.
Ali-Toudert, F., & Mayer, H. (2006). Numerical study on the effects of aspect ratio and orientation of an urban street canyon on outdoor thermal comfort in hot and dry climate. Building and Environment, 41(2), 94-108. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.01.013
Aljawabra, F. F. (2014). Thermal comfort in outdoor urban spaces: the hot arid climate. (Doctor of Philosophy), University of Bath,
Alves, E., & Lopes, A. (2017). The Urban Heat Island Effect and the Role of Vegetation to Address the Negative Impacts of Local Climate Changes in à Small Brazilian City. Atmosphere, 8, 1-14. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos8020018
Amirtham, L. R. (2010). Effect of urbanization on urban heat island and thermal comfort in chennai metropolitan area,India. (Doctora of philosophy), Chenanai,
Analitis, A., Katsouyanni, K., Biggeri, A., Baccini, M., Forsberg, B., Bisanti, L., . . . Michelozzi, P. (2008). Effects of Cold Weather on Mortality: Results From 15 European Cities Within the PHEWE Project. 168(12), 1397-1408. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn266
Anand, P., gupta, S., & Shashwat, S. (2015). Improvement of outdoor thermal comfort for a residential development in Singapore. 2076-2909, 6. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/openview/fce80a0f02012ef678450978201cf278/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2037639
Arnfield, J. (2003). Two decades of urban climate research: A review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island. International Journal of Climatology, 23(1), 1-26. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.859
Arundel, A. V., Sterling, E. M., Biggin, J. H., & Sterling, T. D. (1986). Indirect Health Effects of Relative Humidity in Indoor Environments Environmental health perspectives, 65, 351-361. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8665351
Baruti, M. M., Johansson, E., & Åstrand, J. (2019). Review of studies on outdoor thermal comfort in warm humid climates: challenges of informal urban fabric. International Journal of Biometeorology, 63(10), 1449-1462. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-019-01757-3
Battisti, A., Laureti, F., Zinzi, M., & Volpicelli, G. (2018). Climate Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Roofs and Pavements : A Case Study at Sapienza University Campus. Sustainability, 10, 3788. doi :10.3390/su10103788 Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103788
Bramley, G., & Kirk, K. (2005). Does Planning Make a Difference to Urban Form ? Recent Evidence from Central Scotland. Environment and Planning A : Economy and Space, 37(2), 355-378. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1068/a3619
Bruse, M. (1999). Simulating microscale climate interactions in complex terrain with a high- resolution numerical model : A case study for the Sydney CBD Area (Model Description). Paper presented at the International Conference on Urban Climatology & international congress of biometeorology, Sydney. www.envi-met.net
Bröde, P., Fiala, D., & Błażejczyk, K. (2012). Deriving the operational procedure for the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI). International Journal of Biometeorology, 56, 481-494. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-011-0454-1
Che-Ani, A. I., Shahmohamadi, P., Sairi, A., Mohd-Nor, M. F. I., Sain, M. F. M., & Surat, M. (2009). Mitigating the urban heat island effect: Some points without altering existing city planning. European Journal of Scientific Research, 35(2), 204-216. Retrieved from https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/24739653/ejsr_35_2_06-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1644302914&Signature=XFWD0VuCvkGr8LL-lHlabJLy1whe-RlEdrTIwiQytMPt-neZNyQIyXPDD4-YUYHjj4J4b~eN1MM70Nge2kskmn0N3E7Zs6HHJdwA-DQPTFzuk5b3KyoR00n-UNE19Iv9VcI6CtidebDIiM~fkuseBT-p4pp9ybOMTvy6LJ3m9v5PJRJLHHkox8I~xlyFZ1t0TSKQZgatU8lp4hrdkhK-G~4GDhwYBLylqwu56dOuCECNGyDu~cvDW~08MaSobZJSibAarrqcnH0bAP6jKHNaAAZ1t0Fn9w~8AO0z7Nxi9xQsBKe4TfOOnt~sy7VnP61XxP7cHBKOCuF4vMAQCmUAsQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA
Chen, R., & You, X.-y. (2020). Reduction of urban heat island and associated greenhouse gas emissions. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 25(4), 689-711. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-019-09886-1
Clifton, K., Ewing, R., Knaap, G. J., & Song, Y. (2008). Quantitative analysis of urban form : à multidisciplinary review. Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability, 1(1), 17-45. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/17549170801903496
Cohen, P., Shashua-Bar, L., Keller, R., Gil-Ad, R., Yaakov, Y., Lukyanov, V., . . . Potchter, O. (2019). Urban outdoor thermal perception in hot arid Beer Sheva, Israel: Methodological and gender aspects. Building and Environment, 160, 106169. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106169
Cortesão, J., Brandão Alves, F., & Raaphorst, K. (2018). Photographic comparison: à method for qualitative outdoor thermal perception surveys. International Journal of Biometeorology. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-018-1575-6
Cuthbert, A. L., & Anderson, W. P. (2002). An examination of urban form in Halifax-Dartmouth : Alternative approaches in data. In Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 11(2), 213 -237
Dai, Q. (2014). The Impact of Urban Form on Thermal Comfort across Street Zones. (Doctor of Philosophy), The Chinese University of Hong Kong,
Davtalab, J., Deyhimi, S. P., Dessi, V., Hafezi, M. R., & Adib, M. (2020). The impact of green space structure on physiological equivalent temperature index in open space. Urban Climate, 31, 100574. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2019.100574
Dempsey, N., Brown, C., Raman, S., Porta, S., Jenks, M., Jones, C., & Bramley, G. (2010). Elements of Urban Form. Dordrecht : Springer Netherlands.
Deng, J.-Y., & Wong, N. H. (2020). Impact of urban canyon geometries on outdoor thermal comfort in central business districts. Sustainable Cities and Society, 53, 101966. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101966
Djongyang, N. l., Tchinda, R., & Njomo, D. (2010). Thermal comfort: A review paper. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14(9), 2626-2640. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.07.040
EPA. (2014). Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies Urban Heat Island Basics. Retrieved from USA :
Erell, E., Pearlmutter, D., & Williamson, T. J. (2011). Urban Microclimate: Designing the Spaces Between Buildings: Taylor & Francis. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849775397
Esther, M. M., & Sagada, M. L. (2014). An Evaluation Of Thermal Comfort Conditions In An Urban Entertainment Centre In Hot-Dry Climate Of Nigeria. International Journal of Energy and Environmental Research, 2(1), 55-74. Retrieved from https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/50525229/published_journal_Esther_Malgwi___Dr._Sagada-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1644303050&Signature=UxwUKYMCdExoWq25DDq5LiXSZsAHoSkO9prDjKeNpUjWKkw1Z3yNwJBg1Im875ki5ciDMElkZNZwDwuQR6H2esGhwnDJ5OJn9SIIQmQPA47Tbf8~hf3ze5lIUNqMLshXVwKLnl40flmrPm1uqPOc-Bjsxe2XpbdDm0jOIPGwQvJTRWg3IkqgbV-1ZfmPsGvVZ0WiaC4YswRdxwApj5L82bkVXTUnYHS8fS2rMXz5yaPKTDrQFwLbU1d2kOh5zMuthNGa3zhx2U5LH2G0-VvHhWbrpYsxfCGCg95Iyr9sf85IcGoW7-oupbl33pXsxteKrvwcYDEJkHMhuUyKz5e53w__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA
Evola, G., Gagliano, A., Fichera, A., Marletta, L., Martinico, F., Nocera, F., & Pagano, A. (2017). UHI effects and strategies to improve outdoor thermal comfort in dense and old neighbourhoods. Energy Procedia, 134, 692-701. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2017.09.589
Fabbri, K. (2015). Indoor Thermal Comfort Perception : A Questionnaire Approach Focusing on Children. Switzerland : Springer International Publishing. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18651-1
Fabbri, K., Ugolini, A., Iacovella, A., & Bianchi, A. P. (2020). The effect of vegetation in outdoor thermal comfort in archaeological area in urban context. Building and Environment, 175, 106816. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.106816
Fanger, P. (1970). Thermal comfort. Analysis and applications in environmental engineering.
Galal, O. M., Mahmoud, H., & Sailor, D. (2020). Impact of evolving building morphology on microclimate in a hot arid climate. Sustainable Cities and Society, 54, 102011. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.102011
Georgi, N., & Tzesouri, A. (2008). Monitoring Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Urban Spaces for Bioclimatic Conditions Improvement. Paper presented at the 1st WSEAS International Conference on LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE, Portugal. www.wseas.us
Ghasemi, Z., Esfahani, M. A., & Bisadi, M. (2015). Promotion of Urban Environment by Consideration of Human Thermal & Wind Comfort : A Literature Review. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 201, 397-408. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.193
Grimmond, C. S. B., & Oke, T. R. (1991). An evapotranspiration-interception model for urban areas. 27(7), 1739-1755. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1029/91WR00557
Gupta, S., Anand, P., & Shashwat. (2015). Improvement of outdoor thermal comfort for a residential development in Singapore. International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), 6(6), 567-586. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/openview/fce80a0f02012ef678450978201cf278/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2037639
Hajat, S., Armstrong, B., Baccini, M., Biggeri, A., Bisanti, L., Russo, A., . . . Kosatsky, T. (2006). Impact of High Temperatures on Mortality: Is There an Added Heat Wave Effect? Epidemiology, 17(6), 632-638. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ede.0000239688.70829.63
Hensel, H. (1981). Thermoreception and Temperature Regulation London, New York Academic Press.
Horrison, E., & Amirtham, L. (2016). Role of Built Environment on Factors Affecting Outdoor Thermal Comfort - A Case of T. Nagar, Chennai, India. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 9(5), 1-4. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i5/87253
Huang, H., Yang, H., Deng, X., Zeng, P., Li, Y., Zhang, L., & Zhu, L. (2019). Influencing Mechanisms of Urban Heat Island on Respiratory Diseases. Iranian journal of public health, 48(9), 1636-1646. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.18502/ijph.v48i9.3023
Hwang, R.-L., Lin, T.-P., & Matzarakis, A. (2011). Seasonal effects of urban street shading on long-term outdoor thermal comfort. Building and Environment, 46(4), 863-870. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.10.017
Höppe, P. (1999). The physiological equivalent temperature-a universal index for the assessment of the thermal environment. International Journal of Biometeorol, 43, 71-75. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s004840050118
Höppe, P. (2002). Different aspects of assessing indoor and oudoor thermal comfort. energy and bulidings, 34. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00017-8
Irger, M. (2014). The Effect Of Urban Form On Urban Microclimate. (Doctor of Philosophy), New South Wales,
Jamei, E., Rajagopalan, P., Seyedmahmoudian, M., & Jamei, Y. (2016). Review On The Impact Of Urban Geometry And Pedestrian Level Greening On Outdoor Thermal Comfort. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 54, 1002-1017 doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.104
Jenks, M., & Burgess, R. (2000). Compact Cities : Sustainable Urban Forms for Developing Countries : Routledge.
Jihad, A. S., & Tahiri, M. (2016). Modeling the urban geometry influence on outdoor thermal comfort in the case of Moroccan microclimate. Urban Climate, 16, 25-42. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2016.02.002
Johansson, E. (2006). Influence of urban geometry on outdoor thermal comfort in à hot dry climate : A study in Fez, Morocco. Building and Environment, 41(10), 1326-1338. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.05.022
Katzschner, L., & Thorsson, S. (2009). Microclimatic Investigations as Tool for Urban Design. Paper presented at the seventh International Conference on Urban Climate, Yokohama, Japan. www.researchgate.net
Kedissa, C., Outtas, S., & Belarbi, R. (2016). The impact of height/width ratio on the microclimate and thermal comfort levels of urban courtyards. International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development, 7(3-4), 174-183. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/2093761X.2017.1302830
Konarska, J., Lindberg, F., Larsson, A., Thorsson, S., & Holmer, B. (2014). Transmissivity of solar radiation through crowns of single urban trees-application for outdoor thermal comfort modelling. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 117(3), 363-376. doi :10.1007/s00704-013-1000-3 Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-013-1000-3
Kropf, K. S. (1993). An enquiry into the definition of built form in urban morphology. (unpublished PhD thesis), University of Birmingham, Birmingham.
Krüger, E. L., Minella, F. O., & Rasia, F. (2011). Impact of urban geometry on outdoor thermal comfort and air quality from field measurements in Curitiba, Brazil. Building and Environment, 46(3), 621-634. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.09.006
Kwon, C., Lee, K. J., & Cho, S. (2019). Numerical Study of Balancing between Indoor Building Energy and Outdoor Thermal Comfort with a Flexible Building Element. Sustainability, 11, 6654. doi :10.3390/su11236654 Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/su11236654
Lam, C. K. C., Cui, S., Liu, J., Kong, X., & Hang, J. (2020). Effect of Acclimatization and Thermal History on Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Hot-Humid Area of China. In (pp. 877-886). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9520-8_90
Lee, H., & Mayer, H. (2018). Thermal comfort of pedestrians in an urban street canyon is affected by increasing albedo of building walls. International Journal of Biometeorology, 62. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-018-1523-5
Lee, L. S. H., & Jim, C. Y. (2019). Urban woodland on intensive green roof improved outdoor thermal comfort in subtropical summer. International Journal of Biometeorology, 63(7), 895-909. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-019-01702-4
Li, H. (2015). Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation : Design and Management Strategies.
Lilly Rose, A., & Devadas, M. D. (2009). Analysis of Land Surface Temperature and Land Use/Land Cover Types Using Remote Sensing Imagery - A Case In Chennai City, India. Paper presented at the The seventh International Conference on Urban Clim, Yokohama, Japan. www.citeseerx.ist.psu.edu
Lobaccaro, G., & Acero, J. A. (2015). Comparative analysis of green actions to improve outdoor thermal comfort inside typical urban street canyons. Urban Climate, 14, 251-267. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2015.10.002
Lundgren-Kownacki, K., Hornyanszky, E. D., Chu, T. A., Olsson, J. A., & Becker, P. (2018). Challenges of using air conditioning in an increasingly hot climate. International Journal of Biometeorology, 62(3), 401-412. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-017-1493-z
Maller, A. (1998). Emerging urban form types in a city of the American Middle West. Journal of Urban Design, 3(2), 137-150. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809808724422
Masson, V. (2006). Urban surface modeling and the meso-scale impact of cities. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 84(1), 35-45. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-005-0142-3
Matallah, M., Djamel, A., Ahriz, A., & Attia, S. (2020). Assessment of the Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Oases Settlements. Atmosphere, 11, 185. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11020185
Matzarakis, A., Mayer, H., & Iziomon, M. (1999). Applications of a universal thermal index : physiological equivalent temperature. International Journal of Biometeorology, 43(2), 76-84. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s004840050119
Matzarakis, A., Rutz, F., & Mayer, H. (2007). Modelling radiation fluxes in simple and complex environments: basics of the RayMan model. International Journal of Biometeorology, 54(2), 131-139. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-009-0261-0
Mi, J., Hong, B., Zhang, T., Huang, B., & Niu, J. (2020). Outdoor thermal benchmarks and their application to climate-responsive designs of residential open spaces in a cold region of China. Building and Environment, 169, 106592. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106592
Mohajerani, A., Bakaric, J., & Jeffrey-Bailey, T. (2017). The urban heat island effect, its causes, and mitigation, with reference to the thermal properties of asphalt concrete. Journal of Environmental Management, 197. doi: 5 Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.095
Morini, E., Touchaei, A., Castellani, B., Rossi, F., & Cotana, F. (2016). The Impact of Albedo Increase to Mitigate the Urban Heat Island in Terni (Italy) Using the WRF Model. Sustainability, 8, 999. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/su8100999
Moughtin, C. (2003). urban design: street and square: Architectural Press.
Muniz-Gäal, L. P., Pezzuto, C. C., Carvalho, M. F. H. d., & Mota, L. T. M. (2020). Urban geometry and the microclimate of street canyons in tropical climate. Building and Environment, 169, 106547. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106547
Ng, E. (2010). Designing High-Density Cities for Social and Environmental Sustainability. UK and USA : Earthscan. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849774444
Nikolopoulou, M., & Steemers, K. (2003). Thermal comfort and psychological adaptation as à guide for designing urban spaces. Energy and Buildings, 35(1), 95-101. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00084-1
Nikolopoulou, M., Baker, N., & Steemers, K. (1999). Thermal Comfort In Urban Spaces : Different Forms Of Adaptation. Paper presented at the International Conference : The Cities of Tomorrow, Barcelona.
Nuruzzaman, M. (2015). Urban Heat Island : Causes, Effects and Mitigation Measures -A Review. International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 3, 67-73. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijema.20150302.15
Oke, T. R. (1987). Boundary Layer Climates. London : Methuen & Co. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00116120
Oke, T. R. (1988). Street Design and Urban Canopy Layer Climate. Energy and Buildings, 11(1-3). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(88)90026-6
Oke, T. R. (2004). Initial guidance to obtain representative meteorological observations at urban sites. Retrieved from Geneva, Switzerland: www.library.wmo.int
Oke, T., R. (1982). The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Quarterly journal of the meteorological society, 108(445), 1-24. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1256/smsqj.45501
Oke, T., R. (1988). Street design and urban canopy layer climate. Energy and Buildings, 11(1), 103-113. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-7788(88)90026-6
Oke. (2006). Initial guidance to obtain representative meteorological observations at urban sites. Retrieved from
Oliveira, V. (2016). Urban Morphology An Introduction to the Study of the Physical Form of Cities. Switzerland : Springer International Publishing
Oliver, J. E. (2005). Encyclopedia Of World Climatology Springer Netherlands. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3266-8
Orosa, J., Costa, Á., Rodríguez-Fernández, A., & Roshan, G. (2014). Effect of climate change on outdoor thermal comfort in humid climates. Journal of environmental health science & engineering, 12, 46. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/2052-336X-12-46
Ouali, K., El Harrouni, K., Abidi, M. L., & Diab, Y. (2020). Analysis of Open Urban Design as a tool for pedestrian thermal comfort enhancement in Moroccan climate. Journal of Building Engineering, 28, 101042. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101042
Perini, K., Chokhachian, A., Dong, S., & Auer, T. (2017). Modeling and simulating urban outdoor comfort: Coupling ENVI-Met and TRNSYS by grasshopper. Energy and Buildings, 152(Supplement C), 373-384. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.07.061
Pirard, P., Vandentorren, S., Pascal, M., Laaidi, K., Le Tertre, A., Cassadou, S., & Ledrans, M. (2005). Summary of the mortality impact assessment of the 2003 heat wave in France. Euro Surveill, 10(7), 153-156. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2807/esm.10.07.00554-en
Pramanik, S., & Punia, M. (2019). Land use/land cover change and surface urban heat island intensity : source-sink landscape-based study in Delhi, India. Environment, Development and Sustainability. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00515-0
Prasad, N., Ranghieri, F., Shah, F., & Trohanis, Z. (2009). Climate Resilient Cities : A Primer on Reducing Vulnerabilities to Disasters. Washington, DC : World Bank. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1596/978-0-8213-7766-6
Priyadarsini, R., Hien, W. N., & Wai David, C. K. (2008). Microclimatic modeling of the urban thermal environment of Singapore to mitigate urban heat island. Solar Energy, 82(8), 727-745. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2008.02.008
Qaid, A., Bin Lamit, H., Ossen, D. R., & Raja Shahminan, R. N. (2016). Urban heat island and thermal comfort conditions at micro-climate scale in a tropical planned city. Energy and Buildings, 133, 577-595. doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.10.006 Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.10.006
Rahman, M. A., Moser, A., Rötzer, T., & Pauleit, S. (2017). Within canopy temperature differences and cooling ability of Tilia cordata trees grown in urban conditions. Building and Environment, 114, 118-128. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.12.013
Raj, S., Paul, S. K., Chakraborty, A., & Kuttippurath, J. (2020). Anthropogenic forcing exacerbating the urban heat islands in India. J Environ Manage, 257, 110006. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.110006
Rajagopalan, P., Lim, K. C., & Jamei, E. (2014). Urban heat island and wind flow characteristics of a tropical city. Solar Energy, 107(Supplement C), 159-170. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2014.05.042
Roa-Espinosa, A., Wilson, T., Norman, J., & Johnson, K. (2003). Predicting the impact of urban development on stream temperature using a thermal urban runoff model (TURM). Proc., U.S. EPA National Conf. On Urban Stormwater: Enhancing Programs at the Local Level, 369-389.
Roaf, S., Crichton, D., & Nicol, F. (2009). Adapting Buildings and Cities for Climate Change : A 21st Century Survival Guide. Oxford, United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Ltd. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080961279
Rodríguez Algeciras, J. A., Consuegra, L. G. a., & Matzarakis, A. (2016). Spatial-temporal study on the effects of urban street configurations on human thermal comfort in the world heritage city of Camagüey-Cuba. Building and Environment, 101, 85-101. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.02.026
Rose, L., Horrison, E., & Venkatachalam, L. J. (2011). Influence Of Built Form On The Thermal Comfort Of Outdoor Urban Spaces. Paper presented at the The 5th International Conference of the International Forum on Urbanism (IFoU), Singapore.
Rosenfeld, A. H., Akbari, H., Romm, J. J., & Pomerantz, M. (1998). Cool communities: strategies for heat island mitigation and smog reduction. Energy and Buildings, 28(1), 51-62. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(97)00063-7
Roshan, G., Saleh Almomenin, H., da Silveira Hirashima, S. Q., & Attia, S. (2019). Estimate of outdoor thermal comfort zones for different climatic regions of Iran. Urban Climate, 27, 8-23. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2018.10.005
Roth, M., & Chow, W. T. (2012). A historical review and assessment of urban heat island research in Singapore. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 33, 381-397. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/sjtg.12003
Rui, L., Buccolieri, R., Gao, Z., Gatto, E., & Ding, W. (2019). Study of the effect of green quantity and structure on thermal comfort and air quality in an urban-like residential district by ENVI-met modelling. Building Simulation, 12(2), 183-194. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-018-0498-9
Sailor, D. (2006). Mitigation of urban heat islands-Recent progress and futurs prospects. Paper presented at the Paper presented at the Paper presented on american meteorological society 6th symposium on the urban environment and forum on managing our physical and natural resources. http://www.cecs.pdx.edu/~sailor
Santamouris, M. (2014). On the energy impact of urban heat island and global warming on buildings. Energy and Buildings, 82, 100-113. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.07.022
Santamouris, M., adnot, J., Klitsikas, N., Orphelin, M., Lopes, C., & Sanchez, F. (2004). Cooling the cities : Energy Efficent Cooling systems and techniques for urban buildings. Greece : university of Paris.
Saud Alznafer, B. M. (2014). The impact of neighbourhood geometries on outdoor thermal comfort and energy consumption from urban dwellings a case study of the riyadh city, the kingdom of saudi arabia. (Doctor Of Philosophy), Cardiff University,
Shahmohamadi, P., Che-Ani, A. I., Tawil, N. M., Maulud, K. N. A., & Tahir, M. M. (2011). The Conceptual Framework to Achieve Energy Consumption Balance in Kuala Lumpur Shophouses for Mitigating Urban Heat Island Effects with Focusing On Anthropogenic Heat Factor. 2(1). doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.22452/jscp.vol2no1.3
Shashua-Bar, L., Pearlmutter, D., & Erell, E. (2011). The influence of trees and grass on outdoor thermal comfort in à hot-arid environment. International Journal of Climatology, 31(10), 1498-1506. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2177
Shashua-Bar, L., Pearlmutter, D., & Erell, E. (2019). Microscale Vegetation Effects On Outdoor Thermal Comfort In A Hot-Arid Environment. 1-4.
Spagnolo, J., & de Dear, R. (2003). A field study of thermal comfort in outdoor and semi-outdoor environments in subtropical Sydney Australia. Building and Environment, 38(5), 721-738. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(02)00209-3
Srivanit, M., & Jareemit, D. (2020). Modeling the influences of layouts of residential townhouses and tree-planting patterns on outdoor thermal comfort in Bangkok suburb. Journal of Building Engineering, 101262. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101262
Taha, H., Akbari, H., Rosenfeld, A., & Huang, J. (1988). Residential cooling loads and the urban heat island-the effects of albedo. Building and Environment, 23(4), 271-283. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/0360-1323(88)90033-9
Thorsson, S., Lindberg, F., Björklund, J., Holmer, B., & Rayner, D. (2011). Potential changes in outdoor thermal comfort conditions in Gothenburg, Sweden due to climate change : the influence of urban geometry. International Journal of Climatology, 31(2), 324-335. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2231
Tong, S., Wong, N. H., Tan, C. L., Jusuf, S. K., Ignatius, M., & Tan, E. (2017). Impact of urban morphology on microclimate and thermal comfort in northern China. Solar Energy, 155(Supplement C), 212-223. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.06.027
Tsai, Y.-H. (2005). Quantifying Urban Form: Compactness versus 'Sprawl'. Urban Studies, 42(1), 141-161. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098042000309748
Ünlü, T. (2011). Towards the Conceptualization of Piecemeal Urban Transformation : The Case of Mersin, Turkey. Built Environment, 37(4), 445-461. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2148/benv.37.4.445.
Vasilikou, C., & Nikolopoulou, M. (2019). Outdoor thermal comfort for pedestrians in movement : thermal walks in complex urban morphology. International Journal of Biometeorology (Special Issue:Subjective approaches to thermal perception), 1-15. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-019-01782-2
Voogt, J. A., & Oke, T. R. (2003). Thermal remote sensing of urban climates. Remote Sensing of Environment, 86(3), 370-384. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(03)00079-8
Wai, K.-M., Yuan, C., Lai, A., & Yu, P. K. N. (2020). Relationship between pedestrian-level outdoor thermal comfort and building morphology in à high-density city. Science of The Total Environment, 708, 134516. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134516
Wang, Y., & Akbari, H. (2016). The effects of street tree planting on Urban Heat Island mitigation in Montreal. Sustainable Cities and Society, 27(Supplement C), 122-128. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2016.04.013
Willemsen, E., & Wisse, J. A. (2007). Design for wind comfort in The Netherlands: Procedures, criteria and open research issues. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 95(9), 1541-1550. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2007.02.006
Xu, M., Hong, B., Mi, J., & Yan, S. (2018). Outdoor thermal comfort in an urban park during winter in cold regions of China. Sustainable Cities and Society, 43, 208-220. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.08.034
Xuan, Y., Yang, G., Li, Q., & Mochida, A. (2016). Outdoor thermal environment for different urban forms under summer conditions. Building Simulation, 9(3), 281-296. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-016-0274-7
Yahia, M. W., Johansson, E., Thorsson, S., Lindberg, F., & Rasmussen, M. I. (2017). Effect of urban design on microclimate and thermal comfort outdoors in warm-humid Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. International Journal of Biometeorology, 62, 373-385. doi :10.1007/s00484-017-1380-7 Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-017-1380-7
Yang, L., Qian, F., Song, D.-X., & Zheng, K.-J. (2016). Research on Urban Heat-Island Effect. Procedia Engineering, 169(Supplement C), 11-18. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.10.002
Yang, W., Wong, N. H., & Lin, Y. (2015). Thermal Comfort in High-rise Urban Environments in Singapore. Procedia Engineering, 121(Supplement C), 2125-2131. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.09.083
Yasa, E. (2016). Computational evaluation of building physics-The effect of building form and settled area, microclimate on pedestrian level comfort around buildings. Building Simulation, 9(4), 489-499. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-016-0277-4
Yilmaz, S., Akif Irmak, M., & Matzarakis, A. (2013). The importance of thermal comfort in different elevation for city planning. Global nest journal, 15(3), 408-420. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.30955/gnj.001053
Yow, D. M. (2007). Urban Heat Islands : Observations, Impacts, and Adaptation. Geography Compass, 1, 1227-1251. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-8198.2007.00063.x
Zaker Haghighi, K., Majedi, H., & Habib, F. (2010). The Effective Indexes On Urban Fabric Typology. Hoviat shahr, 4(7), 105-112.
Zhang, Y., Du, X., & Shi, Y. (2017). Effects of street canyon design on pedestrian thermal comfort in the hot-humid area of China. International Journal of Biometeorology, 61(8), 1421-1432. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-017-1320-6
Zhen, M., Dong, Q., Chen, P., Ding, W., Zhou, D., & Feng, W. (2020). Urban outdoor thermal comfort in western China. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 1-29. doi: Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2020.1782210
Zhong, Chen, G., Chengguo, L., Gao, S., & Li, L. (2019). A Specific Study on the Impacts of PM2.5 on Urban Heat Islands with Detailed In Situ Data and Satellite Images. Sustainability, 11, 7075. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/su11247075
Zhou, B., Rybski, D., & Kropp, J. P. (2017). The role of city size and urban form in the surface urban heat island. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 4791. doi :10.1038/s41598-017-04242-2 Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04242-2
Zhou, W., Cao, F., & Wang, G. (2019). Effects of Spatial Pattern of Forest Vegetation on Urban Cooling in a Compact Megacity. Forests, 10(3), 1-15. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/f10030282
Zhu, Z., Liang, J., Sun, C., & Han, Y. (2020). Summer Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Urban Commercial Pedestrian Streets in Severe Cold Regions of China. Sustainability, 12, 1-20. doi : Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/su12051876
[NRTEE], N. R. T. o. t. E. a. t. E. (2003). Environmental Quality in Canada Cities : the Federal Role. Retrieved from Ottawa
