Article Type: Research Article Article Citation: Dr. M.E.
Hanachor, Nwaiwu Nwabueze, and Prof. M.A. Oyebamiji. (2021). CAPACITY BUILDING
FOR COMMUNITY AWARENESS ON CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF OIL COMPANIES FOR
SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA. International Journal of Research
-GRANTHAALAYAH, 9(2), 281-290. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v9.i2.2021.3380 Received Date: 25 January 2021 Accepted Date: 25 February 2021 Keywords: Capacity Building
Programmes Corporate Social
Responsibility Sustainable
Community Development Exploration activities of Oil companies in most communities in Nigeria have negatively impacted on the environment where they are performing their business activities without adequate compensation to the community people. Such negative impacts include; gas flaring, oil spillages, noise and air pollution and so on and these affect the flora and fauna. Even when compensations are paid, they are not commensurate to the damage and this result in communal conflicts, overheated and prolonged agitations, frustrations, loss of lives and properties and consequently unhealthy relationship between the oil companies and their host communities. This is basically as a result of community people possessing little or no awareness of the terms of the corporate social responsibility to be performed by all participating stakeholders especially the oil companies. This paper therefore examines how capacity building programmes can be employed as a means to equipping and increasing the awareness of community people with necessary information on corporate social responsibility of oil companies for sustainable community development in Nigeria. Some of such programmes include adult literacy education, extension education, conferences, seminars, talk shows, education consultancy just to mention a few. The paper therefore suggests that community members should be adequately informed on existing aspects of the corporate social responsibilities of oil companies operating in their locality and that these oil companies perform their corporate social responsibility to their host communities effectively in order to foster sustainable community development.
1. INTRODUCTIONEvery oil company, whether private or publicly owned, is domiciled within a community be it rural or urban and this is the case all over the world including Nigeria. Some oil companies in Nigeria include; Exxon Mobil, Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC), Agip, Total, just to mention but a few. As these oil companies carry out their oil exploration and other activities within their host communities, the environment is degraded and polluted and this affects the existence of flora, fauna and human activities. Some of these devastating experiences includes gas flaring and oil spillage living community members in a state of suffering and confusion. Community people as a result of ignorance of the corporate social responsibilities of the companies to them go into agitations and most times asking for meagre cash compensations which cannot make up for the huge degradations, environmental pollution and lost of community resources. They wallow in penury while these oil companies and their staff live in affluence and abundance. Most times, community representatives to these oil companies are bought over with some cash gratifications and they drop their move to asking the oil companies give back and positively impact the communities where they live and do their business. These actions of ignorance by host communities has led to communal crises, destruction of lives and properties and disruption of the activities of oil companies. Sometimes, community members become over demanding on oil companies operating within their communities as some of them are not employable due to lack of possession of relevant skills and competencies. This category of community members act like these companies should provide all their needs. Some of the corporate social responsibility of the oil companies are; construction of health care centres, schools, provision of electricity, pipe borne water, bus stops, markets stalls/shops, construction and maintenance of roads, awards of scholarships to deserving students, donations to orphanages and home for the elderly, organise skill acquisition programmes and provision of employment opportunities to qualified community members, just to mention a few, while community people should ensure that the community is very conducive for the oil companies to perform their business without hiccups. This process of giving back to host communities by oil companies and other business ventures is what is referred to as corporate social responsibility. Corporate social responsibility is simply a way for companies to take responsibility for the social and environmental impacts of their business operations (Business News Daily, 2018). It is a business approach that contributes to sustainable development by delivering economic, social and environmental benefits for all stakeholders. This suggests that no community where the activities of oil companies are eminent is supposed to be neglected or abandoned due to the hazards of their business activities without due compensation. It is sad to mention that even in contemporary times, most community members are not aware of or do not possess adequate information of what corporate social responsibility is all about; what it entails and how to go about it. Most of them are not aware of what the term corporate social responsibility refers to as a result of their limited access to organised awareness programmes on corporate social responsibility. It therefore becomes imperative to employ capacity building programmes in order to increase awareness and enlighten community members on the corporate social responsibility of oil companies in order to foster sustainable community development. 2. CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITYCorporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to how companies manage their business processes to produce an overall positive impact on the society. CSR encompasses sustainability, social impact and ethics and should be done correctly. This suggests that CSR must be carried out in a manner that it does that not violate the rules and regulations guiding it so that all relevant stakeholders are adequately carried along in the scheme of things. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2016) defined corporate social responsibility as the continuing commitment of corporate organisations to behave ethically and contribute to economic development of their host communities, while improving the quality of life of their workforce and their families as well as the local community and the community at large. Corporate social responsibility does not only concern itself with the welfare of the company staff but that of the host communities. This definition therefore disagrees with the situation where oil company workers live in so much financial abundance while the host community members wallow in abject poverty. This situation is often witnessed in most oil rich rural communities in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria. CSR advocates that as the oil company’s employees’ welfare is given appropriate consideration, that of the host community members should also be considered and the society at large as this has the ability to potentiate a peaceful and harmonious relationship between business owners and community members in Nigeria. Corporate social responsibility is also referred to as Corporate sustainability, sustainable business, corporate conscience, corporate citizenship or responsible business. Carroll (1991), defines CSR as a company’s sense of responsibility towards the community and environment both ecologically and socially in which it operates. Companies express this citizenship through their waste and pollution reduction processes by contributing to educational and social programmes with adequate earning returns and employed resources. The definition was supported by Sheehy (2014). Sheehy further defined CSR as an international private business self-regulation. According to Lee and Kotler (2013), corporate social responsibility includes six types of corporate social initiatives which includes: · Corporate philanthropy- this comes in form of company’s donation to charity, such as cash, goods, and services or corporate foundation; · Community volunteering- company-organised volunteer activities, sometimes while an employee receives pay for pro-bono work on behalf of a non-profit organisation · Socially-responsible business practices- ethically produced products which appeal to a customer segment; · Cause promotions- company funded advocacy campaigns; · Cause-related marketing- donations to charity based on product sales and · Corporate social marketing- company funded behaviour-change campaigns. 3.
CAPACITY BUILDING
Certain amount of capacities is embedded
in people and communities. There is no community without capacity but often the
capacities need to be developed. It is therefore important to note that at the
heart of capacity building is community people. Healthy communities are made up
of healthy people and families. The creation of healthy environment will
encourage healthy economies and sustainable development. It takes capacity to
do this as well as good leadership, a viable plan, motivation and the support
of the community. This means that it takes capacity to build capacity and it
takes a well taught out process to start both capacity building and effective
community development. Capacity is an elusive concept. It is
described as a process and an outcome; as a dynamic and multidimensional.
Capacity can be said to develop in stages of readiness which indicate
improvement or decline. In any case, capacity exists for the purpose of performing
certain action or enabling performance. Goodman (1998) describes capacity as
the ability to carry out stated objectives. Capacity is simply the ways and means
needed to do what has to be done. It is much broader than simply skills, people
and plans. Capacity includes commitment, resources and all that is brought to
bear on a process to make it successful. Capacity therefore includes the
following components as stated by Frank & Smith in Oyebamiji and Nwabueze
(2020): 1) People who are willing to be involved 2) Skills, knowledge and abilities 3) Wellness and community health 4) Ability to identify and access opportunities 5) Motivation and the wherewithal to carry out initiatives 6) Infrastructure, supportive institutions and physical resources 7) Leadership and the structures needed for participation 8) Economic and financial resources 9) Enabling policies and systems Capacity
building is the process by which individuals and organisations obtain, improve
and retain skills, knowledge, tools, equipment and other resources needed to do
jobs competently or to a greater capacity or scale. Capacity building and
capacity development are often used interchangeable. Sometimes, it is referred
to as community capacity building because it has to do with empowering a group
of people to acquire relevant skills and information necessary for improving
their living condition. Capacity building often refers to
strengthening the skills, competencies and abilities of people and communities
in small businesses and local grassroots movements so as to achieve their goals
and potentially overcome the causes of their exclusion and suffering. Many
organisations interpret community capacity building in their own ways and focus
on it rather than promoting two-way development in developing nations.
Fundraising, training centres, exposure visit, office and documentation
support, on the job training, learning centres and consultants are all forms of
capacity building. In order to avoid or prevent international aid for
development from becoming perpetual dependency, developing nations are adopting
strategies provided by the organisations in the form of capacity building. The United Nations International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) (2016) defines capacity building as
the process by which people, organisation and society systematically stimulate
and develop their capability over time to achieve social and economic goals,
including through improvement of knowledge, skills, systems and institutions,
within a wider social and culturally enabling environment.
This definition further explains that capacity building is a process broken
into phases, not a one stop crash programme, with each phase having its goals.
Therefore, a thorough assessment of each phase to ascertain the achievement of
the prescribed goals will pave way for the next phase otherwise, such phase
should perhaps be repeated as this will provide participants with adequate
information for effective discharge of their duties and responsibilities
especially in their various communities. The
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2011),
defines capacity building as a long-term continual process of development that
involves all stakeholders; including ministries, local authorities,
non-governmental organisations, professionals, community members, academics and
more. Capacity building uses a country’s human, scientific, technological,
organisational and institutional and resource capabilities. The goal of
capacity building is therefore, to tackle problems related to policy and
methods of development, while considering the potential, limits and needs of
the community concerned. Community capacity building according
to Craig (2007) is concerned with promoting the capacity of community to
develop, implement and sustain their own solutions to problems in a way that
helps them shape and exercise control over their physical, social, economic and
cultural environments. It is the continuous process required to foster the
pride and appropriate local leadership that allows communities, through their
members to take responsibility for their own development, (Verity, 2007). Merinoa and Carmenadoa (2012) defined
capacity building as the process by which individuals, groups, organisations,
institutions and societies increase their abilities to perform core functions,
solve problems, define and achieve objectives; and understand and deal with
their development needs in a broad context and in a sustainable manner.
Capacity building therefore empowers people with a broadened horizon and
perspective to life challenges and needs, thereby helping people to change
their approach to situations around them. This has the potential of sustaining
developmental programmes for improved living. Laverack and Thangphet (2009) suggests
that capacity building is a process that increases the assets and attributes
that a community is able to draw upon to improve their lives. Saegert as cited
in Patrick and Ijah (2017) explains that community capacity building emphasises
development of relationships within and outside the community and the use of
community assets to leverage assets from outside to solve common problems.
Hence, community capacity building focuses on relationship building, leadership
development and developing people’s skills, sustaining stakeholders’
engagement, developing a sense of common purpose, an action agenda and
increasing local institutional capacity. Capacity can be perceived as a moving
target. At any given time, capacity can improve or decline. It often develops
in stages that indicate improved readiness to influence performance (Goodman,
1998). Capacity building, therefore, is an ongoing process (the development of
abilities), whose stages can be measured as “development outcomes” through
monitoring and evaluation. The dynamic nature of capacity is often a reflection
of the many different forces that influence its development or decline. From the foregoing, it can be deduced
that capacity building focuses on specific objective or goal, it is dynamic, multidimensional,
and it depends on the context and facilitates change in behaviour. When capacities of communities are built or
developed, it always has a greater impact on many aspects of community
development. This is because, emphasis is placed on existing strength and
abilities rather than being overwhelmed by problems or feelings of
powerlessness. When people’s capacity is developed within a community, it
implies that community are active, interested and participating in what is
going on. Built capacities of community members gives them ample opportunities
to question, challenge and debate what should be done rather than complaining
that nothing will ever change. Capacity building makes community members to get
involved, identify key issues and taking actions. 4. DOMAINS
FOR COMMUNITY CAPACITY BUILDING FOR SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Oyebamiji and Nwabueze (2020) citing
Patrick and Ijah posit seven (7) domains for community capacity building for
sustainable community development. They are as follows: 4.1. LEADERSHIP DOMAIN
One key component for the smooth
functioning of any system, organisation or community is leadership. It forms
one of the domains of capacity building, especially within the community
sphere. According to Rabinowitz (2011), to
ensure sustainability of any community development project or programme
leadership is the most important resource. This is because leaders make things
happen, they have vision, take initiative, influence people, make proposals,
organise logistics, solve problems, follow up and take responsibility. 4.2. POLITICAL DOMAIN
Wildemeersch (2014), refers to
political domain as creating conditions of democratic participation by
mobilising the capacities of different actors involved, thereby empowering the
community in terms of synergy, identification and strengthening of the social
fabric through increasing participation in community development programmes. It
goes beyond providing necessary information and motivation for political action
for disadvantaged persons in community but also having the cultural and
physical space to make political action real. Political domain of capacity building
for citizens participation also empowers citizens to take control of their own
socio-economic and political development, understand how government works or
the governance process and developing the core values of democracy such as
freedom, justice, solidarity and tolerance for others. Community-based adult
education is one of the approaches that could empower citizens for political
action. 4.3. ECONOMIC DOMAIN
Economic domain is vital as the source
of livelihood and employment opportunities of any given community. Developing
the economic domain will ensure the recruiting of new businesses, retaining and
expanding of existing businesses in the community and facilitating new business
start-ups. Building the economic capacity of citizens for improved
participation in community development programmes also involves building the
community to market itself to varieties of entities such as new firms, existing
firms, non-profit organisations, tourists, new residents, restaurant chains and
consequently creating a culture of entrepreneurship among community members. Economically, capacity building provides people with the opportunity of acquiring new skills, information and competencies for improving their economic life and that of their communities. 4.4. PARTNERSHIP DOMAIN
Partnership domain of capacity building
explains the need for communities to be trained and exposed to the need to
partner with various stakeholders, whether individuals, government and
non-governmental agencies for the purpose of fostering sustainable community
development. 4.5. CULTURAL DOMAIN
This domain is referred to as the
totality of the way of life of a people. Cultural dimension is a major lacuna
in the development of a people. Therefore, building the cultural domain of the
people is very imperative as the understanding gained about the people is
necessary for building the social capital of the community and thereby motivate
the people to be actively participate in community development programmes.
Activities such as recreational events, cultural festivals, music and spiritual
songs, local and traditional sports, religious practices are some capacity
building programmes that could motivate citizens to participate in community
development programmes. 4.6. ECOLOGICAL DOMAIN
This domain refers to the environment
or ecosystem. This implies that economic activities must be done in line with
global best practices such that it does not adversely affect the ecosystem.
Some of such activities include oil exploration, mining, felling of trees,
flaring of gas and disposal of toxic/industrial wastes. The consequence is that
if the ecosystem is safe, then its inhabitants will be safe but where it is
not, then it will not be habitable for community members thereby exposing them
to catastrophic diseases, depletion of the ozone layers, desertification,
flood, gully erosion and so on. 4.7. INFRASTRUCTURAL DOMAIN
Provision of basic health
facilities/services, affordable good housing, sanitation infrastructure and
creation of equity groups are some of the areas where citizens capacities are
built for improved participation in community development programmes. When
community members through self-help or networking with government and
non-governmental agencies to set up, it spurs up their living conditions and
consequently allows for better societies. 5.
CAPACITY BUILDING PROGRAMMES FOR CORPORATE
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
For community members to be adequately aware of the corporate social responsibilities of oil companies within their communities for better co-existence and improved service delivery, there is the need for effective engagement of community members in capacity building programmes so as to enlighten them. Such programmes as stated by Frank and Smith (2014) include: · Conferences- Educational conferences where issues bordering on CSR should be regularly organised for community people so as to increase their awareness on the subject and thereby equipping them with necessary information. This will go a long way in exposing them to current information on CSR in order to handle its related challenges appropriately. · Seminars- When people are not adequately informed about an issue; their approach to it will always be limited. Government and Non-governmental agencies should organise constant seminar on CSR for community members to improve their consciousness and better their attitude towards it. · Talk-shows- This is an adult education programme where resource persons are invited and strategic educative issues are discussed thereafter providing opportunity for participants to ask questions and get answers to satisfy their curiosity. Talk shows on CSR should be organised for community members to assist them get enlightened on CSR issues in order to foster sustainable community development · Enlightenment campaigns- Corporate bodies and government agencies such as National Orientation Agency should put together enlightenment programmes on CSR for increased awareness. · Townhall meetings- Townhall meeting is a situation where all participating stakeholders come together on a level-play-ground to discuss pertinent issues with the view to proffering solutions for improved service delivery and harmonious relationships. Oil companies, community leaders and their members should regularly organise this kind of educative forum where the grievances and the misconceptions of all stakeholders are discussed amicably. This possesses the potency of enlightenment on CSR · Adult Literacy programmes- Adult literacy programmes equip citizens with the basic literacy skills such as reading, writing and computing. Whenever community people possess these basic skills, it becomes easier for them to become functional members of society. This implies that they go out by themselves and source for relevant materials on CSR and study in order to improve their knowledge and attitude and consequently sustain community development in their locality and the world at large. · Information and communication technology- Through information and communication technology (ICT), people are able to access several information from different people in different parts of the world thereby making the world a global village. Community people through the use of ICT can compare what goes on in their locality and that of others thereby raising their consciousness on the happenings around the world especially on CSR related issues for sustainable community development · Adult educational consulting- Many persons have studied CSR and could be referred to as experts in that field. Such persons or organisations could be consulted to solve challenges relating to CSR and improve the awareness of community people on its associated problems · Extension Education Programme- Universities and other educational institutions can offer to provide communities with CSR extension education programmes in order to increase their awareness and foster sustainable community development. According to Authenticity Consulting
(2016), there are many approaches to providing capacity building services. They
include the following: 1) Providing access to repositories of information and
resources (for example, databases, libraries and web sites) 2) Publications 3) Trainings (public, customized or on-line) 4) Consultation (for example, coaching, facilitating,
expert advice and conducting 5) research) 6) Coordinating alliances 7)
Some others include; 8)
Board development 9)
Business development 10)
Collaboration planning 11)
Conflict resolution 12)
Financial management 13)
Funding 14)
Information technology 15)
Leadership development 16)
Legal Management
development 17)
Networking opportunities 18)
Organizational development 19)
Programme design 20)
Project management 21)
Quality management 22)
Risk management 23)
Strategic planning and Team building 6.
CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCES COMMUNITY
CAPACITY BUILDING
Conditions
that influence community capacity building are concerned with the mediating
circumstances that could facilitate or inhibit community capacity and efforts
to build it. Chaskins (2001), illustrates these conditions by arguing that a
sense of community could be fostered by a local action such as encouraging
residents to participate in problem-solving activities, trying to prevent a
development deal in their region or trying to get a local recreation
facility. Other factors can either
support or inhibit the possibility of creating that sense of community. For example,
residential stability and greater social capital can increase a sense of social
cohesion and the likelihood of participation in local activities becomes
greater. The existence of informal mechanisms of social control, institutional
trust and a level of sense of safety, connected to stability and existence of
viable social networks can provide a framework where a sense of community can be
more easily cultivated. However,
there can also be negative conditioning influence. For example, there can be
macro level influences (such as the structure of the regional economy, the
influence of migration and racial and economic segregation, and the unequal
distribution of resources among communities) that may restrict a particular
community’s ability to use or build its capacity. These conditions are
generally not susceptible to neighbourhood actions and require intervention
strategies and policy action at the municipal, provincial, or federal level to
effect change. On the other hand, positive changes in these factors at certain
times may provide a community with opportunities to take advantage of resources
that were not previously available to help build capacities (Chaskins, 2001). 7. STEPS
TO CAPACITY BUILDING FOR SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
In the
UNDP's 2008-2013 "Strategic Plan for Development" capacity building
is the " ... organisation's core contribution to development." It
promotes a capacity building approach to development in the 166 countries it is
active in. It focuses on building capacity on an institutional level and offers
a 5step process for systematic capacity building. The steps as stated by UNDP
(2018) are: 7.1. ENGAGEMENT
OF STAKEHOLDERS ON CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT
An effective
capacity building process must encourage participation by all those involved.
If stakeholders are involved and share ownership in the process of development,
they will feel more responsible for the outcome and sustainability of the
development. Engaging stakeholder's who are directly affected by the situation
allows for more effective decision-making; it also makes development work more
transparent. UNDP and its partners use advocacy and policy advisory to better
engage stakeholders. 7.2. ASSESS
CAPACITY NEEDS AND ASSETS
Assessing
pre-existing capacities through engagement with stakeholders allows capacity
builders to see what areas require additional training, what areas should be
prioritised, in what ways capacity building can be incorporated into local and
institutional development strategies. UNDP argues that capacity building that
is not rooted in a comprehensive study and assessment of the pre-existing
conditions will be restricted to training alone, which will not facilitate
sustained results. 7.3. FORMULATE
A CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT RESPONSE
Once an
assessment has been completed, a capacity building response must be created
based on four core issues: Institutional
arrangements - Assessments
often find that institutions are inefficient because of bad or weak policies,
procedures, resource management, organisation, leadership, frameworks, and
communication. UNDP and its networks work to solve problems associated with
institutional arrangements by developing human resource frameworks covering
policies and procedures for recruitment, deployment and transfer, incentives
systems, skills development, performance evaluation systems, and ethics and
values. Leadership - UNDP believes that leadership by either
an individual or an organisation can catalyse the achievement of development
objectives. Strong leadership allows for easier adaption to changes, strong
leaders can also influence people. It uses coaching and mentoring programmers
to help encourage the development of leadership skills such as, priority
setting, communication and strategic planning. Knowledge
- UNDP
believes knowledge is the foundation of capacity. It believes greater
investments should be made in establishing strong education systems and
opportunities for continued learning and the development of professional
skills. It supports the engagement in post-secondary education reforms,
continued learning and domestic knowledge services. Accountability
- Implementation
of accountability measures facilitates better performance and efficiency. A
lack of accountability measures in institutions allows for the proliferation of
corruption. UNDP promotes the strengthening of accountability frameworks that
monitor and evaluate institutions. It also promotes independent organisations
that oversee, monitor and evaluate institutions. It promotes the development of
capacities such as literacy and language skills in civil societies that will
allow for increased engagement in monitoring institutions. 7.4. IMPLEMENT
A CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT RESPONSE
Implementing
a capacity building programme involves the inclusion of multiple systems;
national, local, institutional. It involves continual reassessment and expect
change depending on changing situations. It includes evaluative indicators to
measure the effectiveness of the initiated programmes. 7.5. EVALUATE
CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT
Evaluation
of capacity building promotes accountability. Measurements is based on changes
in an institution’s performance. Evaluations are based on changes in
performance based around the four main issues: institutional arrangements,
leadership, knowledge, and accountability. It focuses on building capacity at
the institutional level because it believes that "institutions are at the
heart of human development, and that when they are able to perform better,
sustain that performance over time, and manage 'shocks' to the system, they can
contribute more meaningfully to the achievement of national human development
goals." 8.
IMPORTANCE OF CAPACITY BUILDING FOR
SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
It takes leaders of any
community or nation time and effort to build capacity. It may also require the
support of individuals with expertise and or money for training. Therefore,
building community capacity leads to positive outcomes for sustainable
community development. Some of the benefits as stated by Oyebamiji and Nwabueze
(2020) are: 1) Capacity building promotes stronger community
relationships; that is, healthier people, caring families and safer and
welcoming communities 2) Increased number of community-based
opportunities are identified 3) It enhances the ability of community members to
share ideas on a course of action 4) Capacity building increase competence in setting
and realising common goals 5) It expands community intuition in sensing what
to do, when to do it and when to quit or leave 6) Capacity building enhances respect for limited
resources including people so that shortages, duplication or waste are
minimised 7) It promotes awareness of the importance of
protecting, advocating for and improving the conditions for vulnerable people,
distinct cultures, foundering economies and environment. 8) Building community capacity promotes skilled
leadership 9) Capacity building promotes an increased interest
for young people to be interested in aspiring to be leaders 10) Community capacity building increases ability to
handle disappointments, threats and hazards to community pride and wellbeing 9. CONCLUSION
Corporate social responsibility of oil companies to their host communities is an integral aspect for ensuring sustainable community development programmes. Capacity building programmes such as townhall meetings, extension programmes, adult literacy programmes and information and communication technology provides opportunities for community members to increase their awareness on CSR related issues and this deserves adequate attention by all participating/relevant stakeholders in ensuring sustainable community development. SOURCES OF FUNDINGThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. CONFLICT OF INTERESTThe author have declared that no competing interests exist. ACKNOWLEDGMENTNone. REFERENCES [1] Authenticity Consulting (2016).
Non-profit Organisational Assessment. Accessed on 21st February, 2020 from
https//:www.authenticityconsulting.org. [2] Business News Daily (2018).
Corporate social responsibility. Accessed on 4th February, 2020, from
https//:www.businessnewsdaily.org. [3] Carroll, A.B. (1991). The Pyramid
of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the moral management of
organisational stakeholders. Business Horizons, July-August, 39-48. Accessed 0n
31st January, 2020 from https//:www.scholar.google.com. [4] Chaskin, R.J., 2001. Building
community capacity: A definitional framework and case [5] studies from
a comprehensive community initiative. Urban Affairs Review, 36(3), [6] 699-717. [7] Craig, G. (2007). Community
capacity building: Something old, something new…? Critical Social Policy. 27,
335-359. [8] Frank, F. & Smith, A. (2014).
The community development handbook: A tool to build community capacity. Canada:
Labour Market Learning and Development Unit, Human Resource Development. [9] Goodman, R.M. Speers, M.A. &
McLeroy, K. (1998). Identifying and defining the dimensions of community
capacity to provide a basis for measurement. Health Education and Behaviour,
25(3), 258-278. [10]
Laverack,
G. &Thangphet, S. (2009). Building community capacity for locally managed
ecotourism in Northern Thailand, Community Development Journal, 44(22),
172-185. [11]
Lee,
N. & Kotler, P. (2013). Corporate social responsibility doing the most good for your company and your cause. [12]
Merinoa,
S.S.&Carmenadoa, I.R. (2012). Capacity building in development projects.
Procedia – Social and Behavioural Science, 960-967. [13]
Oyebamiji,
M.A. & Nwabueze, N. (2020).Capacity building for improved community
development participation of citizens in Nigeria. In M.A. Oyebamiji, E.O.
Olajide, C.O. Omoregie and N.A. Adedokun, (Eds), Citizens’ participation and
good governance in Nigeria, Ibadan, Rasmed publications Limited,101 -129. [14]
Patrick,
J.M. & Ijah, C.N. (2017). Community capacity building for sustainable
community development: a framework for urban indigenous communities. Nigerian
community development journal, 6. 97-110. [15]
Rabinowitz,
P. (2011). Encouraging leadership development across the life span community
tool box. Work Group for Community Health and Development, University of
Kansas, Lawrence, KS. Accessed on 21st February, 2020 from
http://ctb.ku.edu/en/tablecontents/chapter_1013.aspx. [16]
Sheehy,
B. (2014). “Anglo-American Directors’ Legal Duties and CSR: Prohibited, Permitted or Prescribed?”.
Dalhousie Law Journal. Vol. 31. [17]
United
Nations Development Programme (2011). Supporting Capacity Building: The UNDP approach.
United Nations Development Programme. www.undp.org UNDP and Capacity Building. [18]
United
Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) (2016).
Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.
Report of the Secretary General. Accessed on 21st February, 2020 from
https://unisdr.org/files/resolutions/N1624116.pdf. [19]
Verity,
F. (2007). Community Capacity Building – A review of the literature. Adelaide,
South Australian Department of Health. [20]
Wildermeersch,
D. (2014). Displacing concepts of social learning and democratic citizenship. In Biesta, M. D. & Wildermeersch,
D. (Eds.), Civic learning, democratic citizenship and the public sphere (pp.
15-28). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springe. [21]
World
business council for sustainable development (2016). Accessed on 17thFebruary,
2020,from http://www.wbcsd.com.
This work is licensed under a: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License © Granthaalayah 2014-2020. All Rights Reserved. |