Article Type: Research Article Article Citation: Özlem Belkıs, and Ayşe Geysu Menteş. (2021). WHAT
IS BEING DONE FOR A GENDER-FRIENDLY CAMPUS CLIMATE? UNITED STATES AND TURKEY AS
A CASE. International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH, 9(2), 11-21. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v9.i2.2021.3278 Received Date: 24 January 2021 Accepted Date: 18 February 2021 Keywords: Gender Friendly
Campus Climate Gender Equality Sexual Harassment
Today, how an individual learns is as important as what someone learns; because learning environments are part of individual development. A gender-friendly campus climate that aims to create equal conditions for every student and prevents exclusion and marginalization due to their gender or sexual orientation is extremely important for the efficiency of education and individual development. Different organizations such as university administrations, feminist organizations, student and academics groups carry out various studies to create and maintain a gender friendly campus climate. Bu makalede, 2018-2019 yıllarında toplumsal cinsiyet dostu kampüs iklimi yaratmaya devam eden kurumsal uygulamalar, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ve Türkiye'deki üniversitelerde eğitim üzerine çalışılmıştır. At the end of the examination, it was seen that the public sensitivity caused by the disasters experienced by individuals is an important factor in taking institutional steps regarding gender friendly campus climate.In addition, leading feminist academics have been guiding these steps. There is no standard implementation system to create a Gender friendly campus climate, every institution works in accordance with its own structure.
1. INTRODUCTIONThe increase in conservative tendencies also increases the discriminatory attitudes and thoughts in the aspect of gender. Gender based inequality is a strong historical habit that we try to eliminate within the structure of contemporary society. History is crammed with examples of inequalities based on gender and the struggle against them. We are mindful that gender-based inequality has many negative consequences. This form of inequality causes not only violations of educational, health and economical rights but it also hampers the individual´s ability to express themselves and leads them to exclude themselves from society. Despite numerous research and knowledge on the subject the gender gap is far from being closed. The matter of equality has been one of the
fundamental arguments in international law with the establishment of United
Nations One of the areas where gender inequality
should be eliminated, perhaps the most important, is in establishments of
higher learning. Educational environments are, of course, not just about the
written curriculum, and gender stereotypes can be ineffectual in these
settings. As a result of research, we are aware that the way students
experience campus life affects their learning and developmental processes Corporate university administrations, student communities and activists, faculty, unions or government, feminist, or LGBTQ+ groups occasionally intersect and collaborate, but often work separately. It is useful and important to evaluate and review these studies. That is the reason our article aims to cover the studies and regulations that are done corporately in USA and Turkish universities for gender-friendly campus climates. We witness that the rising conservatism in both countries supports patriarchal points of view, thinking, behavior and expression. We know that patriarchal structure and gender-based exclusion, discrimination and violence are directly related to one another. Therefore, we hope that it will be a great review for the reader to examine what has been done for the establishment of equality, especially gender equality, in different societies. 2. DESCRIPTIONS AND FRAME: GENDER FRIENDLY CAMPUS CLIMATE, USA AND TURKEYGender is the largest category on earth Experiencing unwanted situations on campus
raises the concern about campus safety The two countries that are the focus of our
study, the United States of America and Turkey are naturally different in terms
of higher educational background because of the two countries’ historical
development. The American education system has come a long way since the
foundation of Harvard University (History of Harvard, 2019) in 1636 and the
University of Georgia (History of UGA) in 1785. In Turkey the ‘Darül Fünun’ the first model of
the modern Turkish University system was founded in 1846 The university is not only an educational
institution, but also a social space where real life rules are experienced. The
emerging adulthood and adulthood periods and habits gained during this period
have a great impact on directing the individual's future life and career
development 3. MATERIALS AND METHODSThis article is a study focused on the practices carried out by universities so that individuals can feel safe on university campuses and continue their studies in an unbiased climate. Our research has a Bell Hooks point of view. Three groups of sources were used in the review: official websites of universities, research and publications on the subject, and conference reports. The first group of data was collected in 2018-2020 by scanning official websites of selected universities. For the research and publications related to the subject, we used five keywords in Turkish and English (sexuality, campus climate, women friendly campus, gender, equality) in the academic search engines such as; Jstor, Academia, Wiley Online Library, APA, AAUW.org, Mendeley, Google Scholar. Research studies are specifically focused on Turkish and American universities publications. In the third group of official reports and the decoded texts of ‘Against Sexual Harassment’ seminars have also been observed. The research for this article is limited with the applications that are sampled from USA and Turkish universities. The two countries that have been studied mainly are two countries with demographical differences. On the other hand, similar problems are observed in campus experiences, similar studies are carried out in the context of GFCC, although their intensity is different. The USA is an interesting case study, considering that the definition of campus climate is commonly seen in American literature and it is the country where the most research on the topic is done (Sandler & Hall, 1986). Turkey on the other hand is country who has relatively just started on the issue. The issue of sexual harassment and assault is a common campus problem in both countries, and research appears to be concentrated on this issue. The research for this article covers the
institutional studies of universities within the framework of GFCC, academic
units carrying out scientific research and studies are excluded from the study.
The gender and women’s studies undergraduate /graduate departments at
universities and the studies produced there are of great importance in creating
a gender conscious climate. The first women's studies academic unit in the USA
was established in the 1969-70 academic year, and over 600 universities have
been opened to this date Our article covers the practices carried out in universities in the 2018-2019 academic year. Universities are selected in terms of the studies and practices on GFCC, not by the region they are located, subject or size. Therefore, it can be stated that purposeful sampling is used. The practices of the selected universities are examined according to on their internet sites. Special groups, individuals, international organizations, action groups, etc. that work or act on academic life and experiences on and off campus were excluded from this review. In this article, only the studies done by the universities for the GFCC are taken as focus points. For this article ten American universities that fit the ranking criteria’s best according to 2019 100 Universities in The World with Gender Equality (Times Higher Education, 2019) and Pride Index (Pride Index, 2019) were chosen. From Turkey 10 universities who have active women’s and gender issues research centers and universities who work on the GFCC topic were chosen. Since Turkey does not have a ranking and/or measurement criterion on this topic, considering their studies and actions on gender related issues the universities that have taken a leading role have been chosen. In the selection of cases, attention was paid to the balanced distribution of public and private universities for both countries. The names of the universities are not mentioned in the research for ethical reasons, the studies are exemplified. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSAlthough gender issues on campus seems to show similarities in both countries, action that is taken in such cases are of different densities. Units organizing the studies also vary; these are sometimes the university administrations, sometimes the university's gender and women's research and implementation centers and sometimes the leading academics working on this subject. Considering the findings obtained in the research, it has been seen that the studies carried out by universities to establish GFCC can be presented under three headings: · Gender climate and campus rules (policy documents and orientation / gender lessons), · Dormitories and accommodation, Coed and GIH, · Prevention and support activities against sexual harassment and assault.
Gender climate and campus rules To establish a GFCC, universities first declare their own attitudes I institutionally, set rules and follow their implementation. In this context, policy documents and orientation/ gender lessons can be mentioned. Policy documents Both Turkish and American universities plead their approach against gender discrimination and its consequences with a policy document. Almost every university in United States whereas a small number of universities in Turkey has a policy document. Universities in the USA have policy
documents that include the necessary rules for the use of space in campus units
and the regulation of relationships between individuals, and the prevention and
monitoring of any negative situation (sexual harassment and assault, exclusion,
etc.). These documents set the standards for and disclose; what would the
attitude of the university be against an unwanted situation mentioned in these
documents, what are the actions that are not tolerated on campus, what kind of
action would be followed in case of an undesirable situation and which offices and
officers etc. should be contacted. These documents set out prevention and
monitoring strategies by clearly drawing on-campus living rules. It has been
seen in the review that there is no standard or common text for these documents
in US universities. Each university has prepared its own text with its own
title. For example, in the document titled “University Policy: Discrimination
and Sexual Harassment Policy” adopted in 2011, the American University clearly
identified all kinds of discrimination, sexual harassment, assault and stalking
issues, and indicated which offices to apply in such undesirable situations In Turkey, a small number of universities
have a policy document with the framework of GFCC, studies on this subjected
started first in the year 2010. It can be stated that Ankara University, Boğaziçi University, Sabancı
University are examples and pioneers in this regard, the first policy documents
dates back to 2011 On the other hand, Middle East Technical
University emphasized 'gender equality' and 'Equality in gender and Strategies'
by emphasizing 'equality between men and women', and issues such as gender
equality in administrative assignments and academic appointments and promotions
in order to create equal representation in campus management and life and to
raise awareness about it. the university's attitude with definitions of sexual
harassment and assault) It is seen that various ideas and suggestions have been expressed in the Seminars on Combating Sexual Abuse and Attack Prevention and Cooperation for the development of these documents. It was stated that the policy documents should cover not only academics and students but also all the individuals on campus, the attitude of the university should be revealed more clearly, and the mediation which was completely disabled with the Istanbul Convention in terms of sexual harassment and crimes should be removed from these documents (1. Çalıştay raporu). In the 4th seminar in 2014, it was suggested that universities prepare a policy, directive, and regulation according to their own situation and conditions instead of referring to YÖK legislation. It is clearly seen in the seminar reports that academics working on this subject have created a strong network of solidarity and cooperation both among themselves and their universities (6. Çalıştay raporu). In addition, in the 2nd, 7th and 15th seminars, it was discussed whether a common policy document could be prepared for all universities with a centralized approach, and instead of creating a common document, the idea of each university to prepare its own policy document was decided by considering its own circumstances. It can be stated that the said policy documents have different titles and different details for each university. The definitions and punishments of
exclusion and discrimination against sexuality, race or other variables, sexual
harassment and assault, and punishments are explicitly included in the national
laws of both countries, such as CEDAW, the Council of Europe Convention
(Istanbul Convention). In their policy documents, universities emphasize that
national and international legislation is based on the events that would take
place within the campus. Civil Rights Acts, Title IX are shown as the basis for
the documents of US universities. Title IX is the law adopted in the framework
of educational changes in 1972. This law prohibits federally funded educational
institutions from discriminating against students or employees based on gender.
Civil Rights Acts, which has various stages, are also highlighted in these
documents Orientation / gender lessons In both countries, gender courses are
either compulsory or optional in the curriculum or in orientation studies to
establish a GFCC. These are the lessons to raise awareness about gender
equality. An example to this could be the Alcohol Education and Sexual Assault
Prevention lessons at Clayton State University which is a university in the
university system of Georgia USA; Students are trained in sexual assault
prevention, taught behavior that students can contribute to the establishments
of a healthy, consent-based romantic emotional relationship, and where a
positive campus environment is defined Dormitories and accommodation, Coed and
GIH For classrooms, canteens, dining halls, gymnasiums, open spaces, toilets, private areas, dormitories, faculty room, administrative staff rooms, etc. to be considered of adequate GFCC standards all units must be equal and safe for all. Accommodation places and dormitories are
important units in terms of campus climate and where gender policy is visible.
Genders being placed together or separated give clues about the gender policy
followed. If it is analyzed in terms of student dormitories having private or
shared dorms are connected to the local government in Turkey, and they are
strictly segregated by gender Another factor that can secure campus
common areas is the areas that will provide natural surveillance. It is thought
that it is less likely to experience unwanted behavior in places with a wide
field of view, without closed or blind spots. The use of the S-entry layout in
the private area, especially in the toilet and bathroom, prevents it from being
an invisible area. It is also recommended to use ventilated doors for toilets
instead of solid doors Prevention and support activities
against sexual harassment and assault Gender-based violence, sexual harassment and predatory acts are criminal offenses and they are punishable, as required by both domestic law and international agreements in Turkey and USA. Within this framework, on-campus support offices could be mentioned. Most US university campuses have an office
and an officer within the university under the title of equality law in the
title IX. The duties of this unit include subjects such as education programs,
on-campus employment, and university admissions, and it also supports students,
academic and administrative staff on non-discrimination based on gender. These
units also undertook the application, support, and guidance in cases of
undesirable situations such as sexual violence and sexual harassment (Harvard
IX, 2019). In these studies, it is necessary to mention the efforts of Bernice
Sandler, who was also exposed to gender discrimination at work, she is an
important figure considered her contribution to title IX and the terms ‘cold
campus climate’ and ‘gang rape’ she added to literature In Turkey there is no special law or regulation
covering crimes on campus The Istanbul convention that has been signed by Turkey in 2011, ‘Gender Conscious University Seminar’ organized by the Council of Higher Education with the influence of the strong public opinion created by the brutal murder and rape of university student Özgecan Aslan in 2015 (Belkıs & Siyez, 2018) and strong feminist academics such as Gülriz Uygur, Yıldız Ecevit and Ayşe Akın have been influential in these studies. In Turkey, one of the most important studies that has been done by universities is the communication and cooperation seminars organized by the universities and faculty members working against sexual harassment and assault twice a year. Through these seminars, a ground is prepared to discuss what is being done in these units and what could be done in the units that will be established (Uygur, et al., 2018). One of the strategies to prevent and monitor sexual harassment and assault within the scope of GFCC in USA universities is the panic button and emergency blue light poles. According to experts, students are also under high threat to such adverse conditions, especially in the first months of school. In such a case, solutions were also researched for students who could not call friends, family or even the police in their common areas. EMERGENCY inscription in fluorescent / blue colored boxes and poles have become a staple in almost every university. The rape and the killing of a university student named Jeanne Clery in 1991 has contributed greatly to the spread of this program, which started in Chicago University in 1989, and even the law (Clery Act) is referred to by this teenager (Jackson L. , 2019). Poles seem to have lost their function in today's technologically focused campuses, and even some universities have removed these blue poles. For example, the University of Georgia removed these poles from the campus in 2004, while the University of Colorado canceled the emergency phones in 2015 and developed a free mobile application (Put a Lifeline in Your Hands, 2018). As a prevention strategy against sexual harassment and assault at American universities, Green Point Violence Prevention Strategy can be mentioned in recent applications. The program is primarily designed to prevent dating violence, sexual violence and persistent follow-up situations in college and university settings. The results of the comparison between three universities that adopted the practice between 2010 and 2013 and two universities that did not, were favorably observed in favor of implementation (Green dot for colleges). This strategy is a national program aimed at training students, administrative and academic staff to help prevent power-based personal violence cases (PBPV). (Grant, Mottet, & Tanis, 2011). 5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSUniversities are idealized institutions, but they are not ideal social environments. Research show that campuses are places open to sexual discrimination, sexual harassment and assault and these situations are continuously occurring on campus grounds. However, equal and safe conditions must be provided for everyone on campus, including students, administrative and academic staff; because equality is a right, a human right. There is not a single cause of problems, nor can there be a single solution. Therefore, the solution of the problems caused by gender inequalities cannot be not be one-way. The direction of the struggle can sometime be from top to the bottom, and sometimes from bottom to the top; components of the struggle can sometimes be activists, student or academic groups, non-governmental organizations or universities or unions with their corporate identity. In this article, we took US and Turkey as study cases and we tried to review and examine what universities have been doing institutionally to promote a gender-friendly campus climate. This article was created with the information announced by universities within the framework of gender-friendly campus climate and the data collected by the author´s own experiences and testimonies. Although gender-based problems encountered on campuses of both countries are similar, their counter action practices and how intense they would be is different. On one hand, the gender approaches of societies, and on the other hand, the gender policies of the governments, therefore, the official institutions have an important impact. It can be stated that although the struggle on some issues is persistent, some problems are fully and purposely ignored. It could be said that the studies in the USA date back to 1970, and the studies in the Turkey commenced to 2010. In our review, we saw that there are two igniting factors in the transformation of studies on gender-friendly campus climate into two institutional steps; · Creating public opinion on the terrible individual events and putting pressure on the institutions. · Women academics who are pioneers in accelerating corporate decisions. Strong feminist scientists such as Berenice Sandler, Yıldız Ecevit, Gülriz Uygur and Ayşe Akın have shown women's effective role in the struggle for gender equality in the university structure. Another issue that draws our attention is the impact of central and official decisions on universities for GFCC regulations. Enactment of Crime Awareness and Campus Security Law in 1990 in the USA and The Institution of Higher Education, an organization that is connected to all universities in Turkey (YOK) organizing a seminar in 2015 concerning Gender Conscious University regulations can be called the official starting points. In other words, universities started to work on equality with the push of the local and federal government. This situation implies that a national gender policy is being worked on and exemplifies the top-to-bottom direction of the movement. There is no standard implementation string for GFCC. Each university conducts studies according to its own conditions and priorities, but nevertheless policy documents and publications related to ethical life rules, security of campus area and places, emergency stations, dormitory and private area uses, sexual harassment and attack prevention and monitoring studies, women and some base topics such as gender research application centers can be mentioned. We think that this topography displays a structure that evokes feminism. Feminism also rests on the main topics of establishing gender equality and eliminating gender discrimination, however, regional needs come to the forefront in practice. In this context, GFCC may show differences in application according to the conditions of the region, university, individuals, and places but it is common in principles. The first important step for GFCC is the university's announcement of campus rules and attitude. This is announced in Policy Papers, the titles of which are different for each university. It is understood that on-campus trainings
are at great importance under the GFCC. It seems important to remember that
exchange of knowledge within the scope of orientation courses, seminars given
to university administrations or gender courses is an awareness training.
Because attitude towards gender equality is not something that can easily
change with practical applications, there may be discrepancies between ideas
and attitudes The corresponding option to US Coed and Gender Inclusive Housing in Turkey is entirely based on the student´s sex. Here, it can be thought that the cultural structure directly affects the life of the university, so the dominant gender policy is effective in the campus climate. So, it is the belief that gender-based inequality will be eliminated from campus environments with these studies? Considering the following questions can provide a more realistic questioning: How sincere are universities for creating a gender-friendly campus climate? Does the gender policy have a national or cultural structure, or can institutions act independently of the big picture? Would there be still studies and still be carried out under the GFCC, if there were not any murders? What would happen if there were not any strong feminist women academics working for gender equality? We think there is a need for field research seeking answers to these questions. SOURCES OF FUNDINGThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. CONFLICT OF INTERESTThe author have declared that no competing interests exist. ACKNOWLEDGMENTWe would like to thank all
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