Article Type: Research Article Article Citation: Maman Sadi Souley,
Saidou Addam Kiari, Boubé Morou,
and Jens B. Aune. (2020). VALORIZATION OF SIDA CORDIFOLIA L. BIOMASS IN COMPOST FOR PEARL MILLET (PENNISETUM
GLAUCUM) PRODUCTION IN NIGER. International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH,
8(11), 211-226. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v8.i11.2020.2317 Received Date: 02 November 2020
Accepted Date: 30 November 2020
Keywords: Sida Cordifolia L. Biomass Composting Chemical
Composition Pearl Millet
Yield Sida cordifolia L. (SC) is an invading species that
represents a threat to grazing lands in Niger. In order to
enhance this invasive species, we studied the use of this plant for
compost-making. First, the study evaluated the development of chemical
properties under aerobic composting of SC in pit (P) and in heap (H) composting
with two different mixtures. Mixture 1 (M1) contained 75% SC, 20% manure and 5%
ash, while mixture 2 (M2) contained 95% SC and 5% manure. Then, the
phytotoxicity test of the composts obtained was carried out by evaluating the
effects of four different concentrations of compost on germination of pearl
millet. The study of the effect of the rates 1000 kg ha-1 and 1500
kg ha-1 (100g and 150 g hill-1) of the different composts
on pearl millet yield under field conditions. The composting was undertaken at Molli fishery station
and the agronomic tests at the N’Dounga experimental
site during two seasons (2018 and 2019). The chemical analysis showed that the
composts from M1 were richer in plant nutrients than the M2 composts. All four
rates of composts gave germination rates beyond 50% independent of composting
method or compost mixture. On both seasons, the 1000 kg ha-1 M1P
gave the best result in terms of grain yield. In 2018, M1P treatment increased
grain yield compared to the control by 652 kg ha-1 (105.2%), while
in 2019, the corresponding yield increase was 812 kg ha-1 (118.02%).
Application of 1000 kg M1 compost ha-1
corresponded to about 11.1 kg N ha-1, which is more than three times
the amount of N applied when using the recommended rate of 20 kg NPK ha-1 as
micro dosing. This result showed that compost of SC can be used as a
supplement to mineral fertilizer for increasing pearl millet yield.
1. INTRODUCTIONPopulation growth in Niger is about 3%, which means that food production must double in 50 years in order to keep pace with population growth. Farmers are poor and their use of mineral fertilizer is therefore low. There is consequently a need to develop alternative and less costly soil fertility management options. Compost and green manures can be alternatives or supplements to mineral fertilizer. Many studies from the region shows that compost can greatly increase yield. In Burkina Faso sorghum yield increased by 45% as a result of application of 5 Mg compost ha-1 and compost application was able to compensate for late sowing (Ouédraogo et al. 2001). In Niger it was found that a compost produced from millet glume and farm yard manure was able to increase pearl millet grain yield by 59.4% when 1.5 Mg compost ha-1 was applied as micro dosing (hill placement of manure) (Issoufa et al. 2019). This study also found that application of compost greatly improved the agronomic efficiency of mineral fertilizer and increased soil microbial biomass. A long-term trial in Niger with annual application of organic matter also showed that organic matter application is of vital importance for maintaining the long-term productivity of the soil (Bationo and Buerkert 2001). Application of organic amendments have been found to increase phosphorous availability, stimulate root growth and increase water holding capacity of soil (Bationo and Buerkert 2001). This study also showed that the importance of application of organic amendment was higher in the drier Sahelian zone than in the more humid Sudanian zone. Furthermore, organic amendments were particularly important for increasing pearl millet yields in years with low rainfall. However, the availability of organic amendment is a problem in the Sahel. In Niger is was shown that only 21% of millet stover produced was available for mulching (Baidu-Forson 1995). Manure is also in low supply as a results of limited number of animals and the quality of the rangeland (Bationo and Buerkert 2001). An additional problem is also that the chemical properties of organic amendment including compost are of poor quality as the chemical properties reflect the soil fertility of the soils from which biomass for the compost was produced (Bationo and Buerkert 2001). There is therefore a need to find alternative biomass sources for producing compost and the use of Sida cordifolia L. (SC) can be an interesting approach because biomass from SC is easily available. SC is an herbaceous plant of the family of the Malvaceae. This species was not previously abundant in grazing areas in Niger, but its presence in pastures has increased rapidly in recent decades(Saadou 1990). The species is not grazed by animals and is typically found in animals’ passage corridors in agro-pastoral zones (Chaibou 2000). Currently, SC occupies important areas of agro pastoral areas in Niger and is considered an invasive species. SC occupied between 96 and 100% of pasture are in the two villages (Tientergou and Bangou) in Niger (Chaibou 2000).This study therefore accessed the use of SC as material for compost production and its use has as a fertilizer in pearl millet production. The objective of this study was to valorize the biomass of SC through composting, assess phytotoxicity on germination, and evaluate the effect of compost on grain yield and stover production of pearl millet. 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS2.1. STUDY ZONESThe study of compost (elaboration and phytotoxicity test) was conducted in
2018 at Molli fishery station located about 35
kilometers at the south-East of Niamey on longitude 2°20’ 149’’ Est and
latitude 13°18’511’’North. The agronomics experiments were conducted during the
2018 and 2019 at the Centre Régional de Recherche Agronomique du Niger (CERRA). Research Station located in N’Dounga (13°25′00′′ N and
2°18′28′′ E) about 22 kilometers at the south-East of Niamey
(figure 1). Figure 1: Location
of experimental sites. The climate of the study zone is of Sahelo-Sahelian
type with an average yearly rainfall of 482 mm. The average temperatures
are around 30°C in the dry season. The soils are classified as Psammentic Paleustalf (FAO, 1988) which is sandy, with moderate to low
inherent soil fertility. The soil in the site (Table 1) are preponderantly
sandy, low in organic matter and deficient in both nitrogen and phosphorus (Sadi et al. 2019). Table 1: Initial soil physical and chemical properties
per site (±SE)
2.2. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALThe material used for the composting was dry biomass of SC, organic manure (OM) and ash. The biomass of the SC
(stems, leaves, flowers,
seeds) was harvested at maturity between
October and November 2017. The OM (a mixture of the straw and dejections of
bovines) was collected in the village of Molli close
to Kollo INRAN station where the test was conducted.
The OM was cow dung and crop residues having served to feed the animals. Wood
ash was also collected
from the Molli village. The soil used for the phytotoxicity test was collected at N’Dounga research station. where the agronomic experiments
were carried out. The variety of pearl millet Haini Kiré Précoce (HKP) was used in
the germination test and in the field experiments. It has a growth cycle of 90
days and plant height varies from 1.9 to 2.0 m. This variety can yield up to 2
t ha-1 under good conditions. 2.3. METHODS OF COMPOSTINGThe composting methods tested were pit (P)
and heap (H) composting under aerobic conditions. The dimensions of the pit
were 3 x 3 x 1 m. In the heap method, the diameter of the heap at the ground
was 1.5 m and the height 1 m. Two types of compost mixture were used in
this study. Mixture 1 (M1) consisted of 75% of the S. cordifolia L. biomass (SCB) + 20% Organic Manure (OM) + 5% ash
and mixture 2 (M2) consisted of 95% of SCB + 5% OM. The compost treatments were
as follows: 1) M1P: 75% SCB + 20% OM + 5% ash in
the pit, 2) M2P: 95% SCB + 5% OM in the pit, 3) M1H: 75% SCB + 20% OM + 5% ash in
heap, 4) M2H: 95% SCB + 5% OM in heap. SCB was
first cut
into pieces of about 10-15 cm long to accelerate decomposition. The materials
were positioned in successive layers (Misra et al.
2005). About 85 liters of water was
added before covering the mixture with tarpaulin. Generally, the optimal
humidity of the mixture is situated between 50 and 80% of the raw mass (Richard et
al. 2002). Every pit/heap was mixed twice
per week during the first month (therefore two chambers in the pit).
Thereafter, the pit/heap was turned once per week. During the process of composting, the temperature of
the mixtures was measured daily with the help of a probe thermometer. Every
month, a composite sample was collected for analysis of pH, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The pH was measured with the Mettler-Toledo type MP
225 (ISO 19390 (1994). The total organic carbon was determined according to the
method Walkley and Black (Walkley and
Black 1934). Total nitrogen was
measured using Kjeldahl method (NT 76.05, 1983).
Available phosphorus was determined by
Bray I method (Van Reeuwijk 1993). Potassium (K+)
was determined with the help of a flame photometer (Lange M7). 2.4. TEST OF PHYTOTOXICITY ON PEARL MILLETA germination test was undertaken at CERRA Kollo Greenhouse at 25° C to assess the effect of the
different types of compost (treatments) on pearl millet germination. A randomized pot experiment with four repetitions was used. The
composts M1P, M1H, M2P and M2H were tested in combination with four
concentrations of compost (S1=100% compost, S2=75% compost and 25% sand, S3=25%
compost and 75% sand and S4=100% sand). The soil was collected at N’Dounga research station. The treatments were tested in
pots with 17cm of diameter and 10 cm depth. In every pot, 100 seeds of the
pearl millet variety HKP were sown for the germination test. The germination was recorded by counting daily the number
of germinated seeds during a 10 days
period. Irrigation was provided according to needs of the plants. 2.5. FIELD EXPERIMENTA field
experiment was also undertaken to assess the effects on pearl millet yield of
the different types of compost. The treatments were as follows: 1)
Control; 2)
1000
kg ha-1 M1P; 3)
1500
kg ha-1 M1P; 4)
1000
kg ha-1 M2P; 5)
1500
kg ha-1 M2P; 6)
1000
kg ha-1 M1H; 7)
1500
kg ha-1 M1H; 8)
1000
kg ha-1 M2H; 9)
1500
kg ha-1 M2H. The
experiment was completely randomized with four replications. Each plot measured 5 m x 6 m spaced with 2 m
between each plot. An alley of 3 m separated the repetitions. The spacing was 1
m within and between rows corresponding to 10 000 hills ha-1 as
recommended by Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique du Niger (INRAN). The compost was applied at
sowing. The plants were thinned to two plants hill-1 during the
first weeding. At physiological
maturity, grain yield and biomass were harvested from the 4 central rows (16
hills) of each plot. The samples were air dried in the sun for two weeks. In order to appreciate how much productivity improvement was gained by
use of the nutrients inputs and how productive the cropping system is relative
to its nutrient input, agronomic efficiency was calculated from the formula developed by (Vanlauwe et al.
2011) as follows: AE-N (kg grain.kg-1 N) =
where: AE-N is
the agronomic efficiency of nitrogen (kg grain kg-1 N), Y is the
grain yield of the fertilized plot in kg ha-1,
Y0
is the grain yield of the control plot in kg ha-1 and Fn is the quantity of nitrogen contained in the applied compost. 2.6. ANALYSIS OF DATAThe data
for every variable were tested for their normal distribution with the Ryan
Joiner test. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significant
differences. The means were separated based on the Tukey’s test. The software
Excel 2016 and Minitabs 14th edition was
used for these analyses. 3. RESULTS3.1. VARIATION OF THE PHYSICO CHEMICAL PROPERTIES DURING COMPOSTINGA
significant variability in carbon, nitrogen and organic matter content was
observed during composting process (Table 2). Analysis of the variance showed
highly significant differences in physico-chemical
elements (C, N, OM) between the composts and between the times (<.001). For
pH, no significant difference appeared. Table 2: ANOVA of physicochemical
elements according to composts and time
M1
P =
Compost in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit
with 95% SCB +5% OM. M1
H =
Compost in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2 H = Compost in heap with 95% SCB+5% OM. Same letters within columns indicate no significant differences. 3.2. TEMPERATURE OF COMPOSTSTemperature
(Figure 2 and 3) evolved similarly in the two mixtures and the maximum
temperature in both composts was reached in the first week. From the 13rd to
34th day of composting, the temperature dropped in all pits and the maximum
temperatures were 55.25°C and 52.3°C for M1 and M2 respectively (Figure 2). Figure 2: Variation
of temperatures during the composting to the level of pits M1P
= Compost
in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit with 95% SCB+5%
OM. In heap
composting, the temperatures rose more slowly than in the pit compost and here
the highest temperatures were reached in the second week. For heap composting,
the highest temperatures reached were 48.3°C for M1H compost and 56°C for M2H. Figure 3: Variation
of temperatures during composting to the level of heaps M1H = Compost in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2H = Compost in
heap with 95% SCB +5% OM. 3.3. VARIATION OF THE PHOne month after the start of composting, the
different mixtures were alkali (pH> 8) (Figure 4). A
progressive reduction of pH during the process was observed in all composts,
but this reduction is not statistically significant. During the 90-day period of composting, the
pH values of composts in pit reduced from 8.3 to 7.9 for the M1P compost and
from 8.17 to 7.58 for the M2P compost. For heap composting, the pH changed from
8.33 to 8.09 for the M1H compost and from 8.61 to 8.14 for the M2H compost. Figure 4: Variation in pH of the composts during the
decompositions period M1 P = Compost in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit
with 95% SCB +5% OM. M1 H = Compost in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2 H = Compost in heap with 95% SCB+5% OM. 3.4. ORGANIC CARBONThe carbon content of the composts was
reduced during the 90 days composting period (Figure 4). Statistically,
this reduction was significant (p=<.001) at 5% threshold (Figure 5). The carbon content of the M1P compost fell from 13.0% to 12.3% and the
M2P compost from 12.97% to 11.12%. The carbon content of the M1H composts and
M2H dropped from 12.0% to 7.9% and from 9.59 % to 8.25% respectively. Figure 5: Variations in organic carbon during composting according to the methods and types of mixtures M1 P = Compost in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit
with 95% SCB +5% OM. M1 H = Compost in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2 H = Compost in heap with 95% SCB+5% OM. 3.5. TOTAL NITROGEN (N)The nitrogen content differed between the two
composts, but also according to the periods of sampling (Figure 6). For the pit
method, the nitrogen content increased significantly from the start of composting
(p<.001). The nitrogen content was
highest for the M1P compost. On the 30th day, this compost reached
nitrogen content of 0.83% and at the end of the process (90th day),
this compost had 1.11% nitrogen. With regard to the
M2P compost, its nitrogen content increased between the 30th and 90th
day from 0.77% to 0.88%. The same tendency was observed for heap
composting (M1H and M2H). For the M1H compost, the nitrogen content was 0.63%,
0.73% and 0.8% at the 30th, 60th and 90th day respectively. For the M2H compost, this content evolved
from 0.66% on the 30th day to 0.83% on the 90th day. Figure 6: Variation of the total nitrogen during
composting according to the methods and the types of mixtures M1 P = Compost in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit
with 95% SCB +5% OM. M1 H = Compost in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2 H = Compost in heap with 95% SCB+5% OM. 3.6. THE C/N RATIOThe C/N ratio passed from 15.85 at 30 days
after composting to 11.24 at 90 days after start of composting for the M1P
compost and from 17.06 at 30 days to 12.75 at 90 days for the M2P compost
(Figure 7). For M1H composts and M2H, these ratios passed
from 20.8 to 9.99 and from 15.41 to 10.07
respectively. Figure 7: Variation of the C/N ratio during composting
according to the methods and the types of mixtures M1 P = Compost in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit
with 95% SCB +5% OM. M1 H = Compost in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2 H = Compost in heap with 95% SCB+5% OM. 3.7. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSTSThe analysis showed highly significant
differences with regard to organic matter (p<.001), nitrogen (p = 0.008),
and potassium (p<.001) (Table 3) (Sadi et al. 2019). No significant difference was observed for total and assimilated
phosphorus and pH-H2O. The richest compost was the M1P compost and
this contained 12.31% C, 1.11% N and 1026 mg K kg-1.
The pit method gave a better quality than heap composting as this compost was
richer in carbon, nitrogen and available phosphorus
than the heap compost. Table 3: Mean
composition in physico-chemical elements of composts
(± SE)
M1P
= Compost
in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit with 95% SCB
+5% OM. M1H
= Compost
in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2
H = Compost in heap with 95% SCB+5% OM. FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization, AFNOR: Association French of Normalization.
tot P= total P and available P =
Available phosphorus. 3.8. SAME LETTERS WITHIN LINE INDICATE NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES
3.8.1. TEST OF PHYTOTOXICITY The
statistical analysis revealed a highly significant difference between the
composting methods and the two mixtures on germination (Table 4). The average
germination percentages obtained for M1P compost for the S1 substrates, S2 and
S3 were 60.3%, 75.0% and 87.5% respectively. Germination decreased with
increased amounts of compost in the substrate for all the compost types, but
the germination was above 50%, even for the pure compost types. Table 4: Average
of germination rate according to the substrates (compost rate) and the types of
compost
M1
P =
Compost in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit
with 95% SCB +5% OM. M1
H =
Compost in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2 H = Compost in heap with 95% SCB+5% OM. Same letters within line indicate no significant differences 3.9. EFFECTS OF PREPARED COMPOSTS BASED ON BIOMASS OF THE SC ON PEARL MILLET3.9.1. DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL The
distribution of rainfall the cropping season 2018 and 2019 from sowing to the
harvesting is illustrated in Figure 8. In 2018
(figure 8A), a total of 517 mm rainfall was obtained during the 92-day period.
The most important rainfall (73 mm) was recorded on the 50th day
after sowing (DAS). Between the 7th and 17th DAS, a small
dry spell was observed. The total
rainfall from sowing to harvest was 408.2 mm in 2019 at N’Dounga
station (figure 8B). The maximal rainfall recorded was 38.8 mm on the 56th
DAS. The two
cropping years were characterized by a variation in rainfall distribution. In
2018, 80 days of rain were recorded while in 2019, the season lasted more than
100 days. The rain lasted between sowing and harvest. This variability between
the two years is similar to that observed by (Issoufa et
al. 2019) during a study carried out in N’Dounga station for the 2013 and 2014. Figure 8: Rainfall
distributions for N’Dounga during the cropping season
2018 and 2019 Sources: http://www.fieldclimate.com INRAN REDSAACC-3,
Serial number 0020366B 3.10. EFFECTS OF COMPOSTS ON THE MILLET
GRAIN YIELD AND THE BIOMASS
Over the two years, the treatments had a significant effect on the grain
results (Table 5). The highest grain results were obtained with M1P compost
applied at rates of 1000 kg ha-1 and 1500 kg ha-1. In 2018 the M1P treatment increased the yield compared to the control of
652 kg ha-1 (105.2%), while in 2019 the M1P treatment increased the
grain yield compared to the control of 812 kg ha-1 (118.02%).
Application of 1000 kg of compost M1P ha-1 M1P is equivalent to 11.1
kg N ha-1 (1000 kg * 1.11% N). Treatments with pit composting gave better
grain yield than heap composting. There was also a tendency for M1 compost to
perform better than M2 compost. It was found that 1000 kg ha-1 gave
better results than 1500 kg ha-1 of compost. Treatments and years
had significant effects on stem yield. The treatment of 1000 kg ha-1 M1P gave the highest yield in 2018
but also during the 2019 campaign. This treatment increased the yield of the
stems compared to the control of 1377 kg ha-1 in 2018, i.e.
77.5% and 1611kg ha-1 in 2019 corresponding to 76.13%. Table 5: Mean
yield in grains and in stover of HKP millet according to treatments and sites (±SE)
M1
P =
Compost in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit
with 95% SCB +5% OM. M1
H =
Compost in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2 H = Compost in heap with 95% SCB+5% OM. Same letters within columns indicate no significant differences 3.11. AGRONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF NITROGEN (AE-N) FOR THE FOUR COMPOSTSHighly
significant differences at 5% were obtained between treatments and years (p<.001). The
agronomic nitrogen use efficiency varied from 10 to 59 kg grain kg-1
N in 2018 and from 24 to 78 kg grain kg N-1 in 2019 (Table 6). For
the two years, the treatment 1000 kg
ha-1 M1P
gave the highest nitrogen use efficiency. In terms of the grain yield, the
nitrogen use efficiency was higher in the compost produced in pit as compared
to the compost produced in heap. Table 6: Analysis
of the grain yield and the agronomic efficiency of the treatments (±SE)
M1
P =
Compost in pit with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2P = Compost in pit
with 95% SCB +5% OM. M1
H =
Compost in heap with 75% SCB +20% OM+5% Ash, M2 H = Compost in heap with 95% SCB+5% OM. Same letters within columns indicate no significant differences 4. DISCUSSION4.1. EVOLUTION OF THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS DURING COMPOSTINGThere was
no clear difference in maximum temperatures developed in pit composting as
compared to heap composing. In pit composing there is probably a cooling effect
because the compost is placed below ground, but at the same time the heat loss
is lower because the compost is less exposed to air. In heap composting there
is probably a greater heat loss because the compost is more exposed to the air.
These effects operate in different directions and explain why there is no major
difference in maximum temperature between pit and heap composting. However, it
was observed that maximum temperature was reached two weeks later when heap composting
was used, compared to pit composting. The
maximum temperatures obtained in this study varied from 48.3 for the M1H
compost to 56° C for the M2H compost. The maximum temperatures are similar to
those obtained by (Tchegueni and
Kili 2011). However, typical maximum
temperatures in composting is between 60° C and 70° C (Mustin 1987). in
order to achieve maximum temperatures higher than 60° C. Such
temperatures destroy all the pathogenic organisms The
low quantity of compost production could be the cause for the low maximum
temperatures. Quantities should be greater than 500 kg (Tchegueni and
Kili 2011). The end
temperature in the different composts was close to ambient temperature (44.9°C)
which indicates that the decomposition was almost complete (Mustin 1987).
The pH
was significantly reduced during the composting period. Soil organic carbon was
also reduced during the decomposition process. The microorganisms use the
organic matter as a substance for their metabolism, thereby reducing the carbon
content of the compost through the release of CO2 (Francou 2003,
Adamou et al. 2018). During
the process of composting, the nitrogen percentage increased in all composts.
This could in part be related to the residues of microbes and bacteria that
have multiplied especially during the first phase composting (Mustin 1987). It can also be assumed that part
of the increase in nitrogen is due to the effect of the release of carbon
during the decomposition period which increased the relative content of
nitrogen compared to carbon in the compost, thereby lowering the C/N ratio (Tchegueni and
Kili 2011, Adamou et al. 2018). Compost to be used as a
fertilizer should have a C/N ratio below 15–20 according to the FAO norm, and
all the composts produced in this study fulfilled this criterion. 4.2. TEST OF PHYTOTOXICITY ON MILLETA mature
compost will have a non-toxic effect on germinating plants (Tiquia et al.
1997). In this study, different
concentrations of the composts were used to test the phytotoxicity on
germination of pearl millet. The phytotoxicity test of the composts showed that
the incorporation of a dose of 25% of the M1P, M2P, M1H and M2H compost gave a
germination rate of 87.5%, 90.3%, 86.8% and 80.5% respectively. The pure composts gave a germination rate of
between 50 and 60%. Compost is considered non-toxic when germination is beyond
50% (Luo et al.
2018). All four
types of composts in this study gave germination rates beyond 50%. Therefore,
these composts can be applied to millet without causing germination inhibition
as the concentration of compost will be low after mixing with the soil, as
under field conditions. The
germination and the good quality of sowings indicate that the composts are
deprived of substances phenolic which can block germination and growth of the
seedlings (Sullivan and
Miller 2001). 4.3. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL FEATURES OF PREPARED COMPOSTSThe C/N
ratio of composts was relatively low. Composts produced from the mixture of 75%
of the SC, 20% of the OM and 5% of the ash have a lower C/N ratio than the
compost produced from 95% SC and 5% OM. This result was the same for both pit
and heap composting. Compared
to the norms of the FAO, the contents in organic matter and in nitrogen are
acceptable. The C/N ratio obtained in this study is close to optimum (Nanéma 2007). This ratio will give a rapid
release of nitrogen as this ratio is close to the C/N ratio of soil. 4.4. EFFECTS OF COMPOSTS ON GRAIN YIELD AND BIOMASS OF MILLET HKPApplication
of composts improved millet yield compared to the control during both cropping seasons (2018 and 2019). Improved crop yields through composting may be linked
to better crop development due to the increased availability of compost
nutrients (Badar et al. 2015). Studies by (Fatondji et al. 2009) have also shown an increase in grain and biomass
yields from millet resulting from a gradual release of nutrients from composts.
M1P compost gave the highest grain yield, possibly because this compost
contains more nitrogen and potassium than other composts. This compost is also
richer in organic matter, which can over time improve the physical properties
of the soil. Application
of compost at a rate of 1000 kg ha-1 gave a higher yield than
application of 1500 kg ha-1 of compost in both seasons. The rate of 1000 kg ha-1
of M1P compost corresponds to 11.1 kg N ha-1. If 20 kg ha-1
NPK 15-15-15 is applied as a microdose, the nitrogen
application rate is 3 kg N ha-1. The M1P compost will also add
approximately 0.0113 kg P ha-1 over the 3 kg P ha-1 applied when 20
kg of NPK 15-15-15 ha-1 is applied as previously recommended. The
nitrogen content is therefore more than three times higher in the treatment of
1000 kg M1P ha-1 than when 20 kg of NPK ha-1 are applied.
In Sudan and Mali, it has been reported that it is possible to use rates as low
as 3 kg NPK (15-15-15) ha-1 (Aune et al. 2007, Aune
and Ousman 2011). This result may also indicate that it is possible to
allocate 500 kg of compost ha-1 instead of 1000 kg ha-1.
It has already been shown that micro-dosing of mineral fertilizers gives good
results in the Sahel, but our results also come that it is also possible to
practice micro-dosing of organic fertilizer using available local resources. In
addition, the results of this study illustrate the principle in precision agriculture
that when a resource is in scarcity, as organic matter in this case, it should
not be applied by diffusion in the field, but rather applied to the plantation
hill (Aune et al. 2017). It is also a less labor intensive and more efficient
way. 4.5. AGRONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF NITROGEN (AE-N)During
the two years (2018 and 2019), application of 1000 kg. ha-1 of M1P
compost gave the highest N-AE with respectively 59 kg of grain kg -1 N
and 78 kg of grain kg -1 N. This can be attributed mainly to the
amount of nitrogen contained in this compost (11.1g.kg-1)
which is higher than that of other composts. Also, this compost gave the
highest results in 2018 (1273 ± 96 kg. ha-1) and in
2019 (1500 ± 97 kg. ha-1). In general, a tangency of
the increase in E-N with the decrease in the dose of the compost except at the
level of the M1H compost. This could be due to the low proportion of nitrogen
contained in this compost which is 0.8% or 8 g. ha-1.
Our results are in contrast with those of with those of (Cassman et
al. 2002) who report that the reduction of
nitrogen fertilizers greatly improves the EAN. 5. CONCLUSIONThe
results from this study show that it is possible to produce a high-quality
compost based on Sida cordifolia (SC) within 90 days.
The compost that gave the best yield results consisted of 75% SC, 20% OM and 5%
ash (M1P). The compost will not be toxic on germination when applied to the
soil. In 2018, the 1000 kg ha-1 M1P treatment increased the yield
compared to the control by 652 kg ha-1 (105.2%), while in 2019 this
M1P treatment increased the grain yield compared to the control of 812 kg ha-1
(118.02%). The
amount of nitrogen applied in 1000 kg compost ha-1 (100 g compost hill-1)
was more than three times the amount applied compared to 20 kg NPK ha-1
(2 g NPK hill-1). However, the composts are low in phosphorus making
it necessary to supplement with phosphorus from mineral fertilizer or rock
phosphates. The results from this study suggest that it should be interesting
for the farmers to harvest Sida cordifolia L.
for compost production, thereby reducing infestation of this invasive weed
species. This compost can be used as a supplement to mineral fertilizer. SOURCES OF FUNDINGThe research was funded by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs through Norwegian embassy in Bamako, Mali. CONFLICT OF INTERESTThe author have declared that no competing interests exist. ACKNOWLEDGMENTThe authors would like to
thank the Department of International Environment and Development Studies,
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