Article Type: Case Study Article Citation: Budiman Yunus, Sharifuddin Bin Andy Omar, and Basse Siang Parawansa. (2020). STUDY OF MANGROVE COMMUNITY STRUCTURE IN
UJUNG BATU BEACH WATER, FLORES SEA, JENEPONTO DISTRICT. International Journal
of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH, 8(5), 108-120. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v8.i5.2020.97 Received Date: 17 May 2020 Accepted Date: 28 May 2020 Keywords: Community Mangroves Diversity This study aims to examine the density, frequency and closure of mangrove areas. In addition, it also analyzed the ecological index (index of diversity, uniformity, and dominance) of mangrove vegetation in the waters of Ujung Batu, Flores Sea, Jeneponto Regency. This research was conducted using the 10 x 10 m2 transect plot method. The data obtained were analyzed to determine the density, frequency, closure and important value index (IVI) as well as to analyze the diversity index, uniformity and dominance index. The results of this study are; mangrove communities in the waters of the Ujung Batu, Flores coast, consists of types Avicennia alba, A. marina, A. officinalis, Sonnneratia alba and Rhizophora stylosa. A. alba dominates at the three observation stations (I, II and III). This is marked by the high importance (IVI) at all levels. The diversity index (H ') at the study site ranged from 0.36 - 0.51, indicating a low level of diversity. The Simpson dominance index (SDI) ranges from 0.34 to 0.54, indicating that one of the species (A. alba) dominates the mangrove area in the study site.
1. INTRODUCTIONCoastal has a strategic meaning because it is a transitional
area between terrestrial and marine ecosystems, with unique characteristics, as
well as a large biological production content and environmental services. This resource wealth attracts various parties to
regulate and utilize it, which is a sectoral resource as a contributor to the
economic sector in development activities, forestry, fisheries, industry,
mining, and tourism. The
ecological function of mangrove forests, among others; coastline protectors,
preventing sea water intrusion, habitats, feeding grounds, spawning ground,
nursery and nurseries for various aquatic biota and microclimate regulators.
While the economic function, among others, as a producer of raw materials for
charcoal, and medicine. The
overall condition of mangrove forests in South Sulawesi is already quite bad,
although it is not as bad as the condition of mangrove forests in Jakarta. The area of mangrove forests in South Sulawesi Province
continues to decrease, especially being displaced by pond and settlement areas. The reduction in the area of
mangrove forests is an indicator of the threat of mangrove forests from coastal
areas in Indonedia. Did not even rule out the next
few years, mangrove forests that are part of the coastal ecosystem suffered
severe damage that threatens the survival of marine life and even humans. The
length of the coast of South Sulawesi is approximately 1000 km from West to
East, but the area of mangrove forests is only about 30.000 ha. To reach the ideal size of mangrove forest, the
South Sulawesi region needs 50.000 ha of mangrove forest (South Sulawesi Forest
Service, 2006). Mangrove forests in the waters of the Ujung Batu
coast, Flores Sea, Jeneponto Regency as part of the
mangrove forest area of South Sulawesi have a very important
role, especially as access to aquaculture and settlements of the surrounding
coastal communities. This
study aims to analyze the density, frequency, and closure of the mangrove
ecosystem, as well as assess the ecological index (diversity index, uniformity,
and dominance) of mangrove vegetation in the waters of Ujung Batu Flores Sea, Jeneponto
Regency. The results of the study are
expected to be a source of information for the management of coastal areas to
ensure the condition and sustainability of the ecosystem. 2. RESEARCH METHODS2.1.
TIME AND LOCATION
This
research was conducted in June to July 2019. The research location was in the
mangrove ecosystem area of Ujung Batu Village, Tamalatea District, Jeneponto
Regency. Analysis and identification of samples is carried out in the field. 2.2.
TOOLS AND MATERIALS
The
tools used in this study include; a rope to make transects and plots, a
thermometer to measure water temperature, a hand-refractometer to measure water
salinity, litmus paper to measure water pH, a roll meter to measure distances
between stations, an identification book to identify the type of mangrove
obtained, stationery to record data, and GPS (global positioning system) to
determine the location of stations. And the material used is seawater and
mangrove samples as the object of study. 2.3.
DETERMINATION OF STATION LOCATION
Stations are conceptually
determined and stations are determined based on coordinates using GPS. Determination
of the station point is determined from the mangrove vegetation closest to the
mainland. Figure
1:
Map of research location The
sampling stations (Figure 1) are distinguished as follows: a) station I is
located in the vicinity of residential areas where there are many aquaculture
and mangrove crab fishing activities, b) station II is located around the farm
site, and c) station III is located around the river estuary. 2.4. DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUESMangrove
vegetation data collection includes the number of trees (mangroves with trunk
diameter> 10 cm), saplings (2 cm <trunk diameter <10 cm), and
seedlings (trunk diameter <2 cm). Tree data collection is carried out using
quadratic transects measuring 10 m x 10 m (Soerianegara
and Indrawan, 1998). The types of mangroves obtained
were identified and counted for each species. Sediment
substrate was taken with a paralon pipe and filter.
Substrate samples which are soil texture are sieved and separated into three
fractions namely sand, mud, and clay (Buchanan, 1971).
The texture was then analyzed in the Laboratory of the Faculty of Marine
and Fisheries Sciences, Hasanuddin University. Data
on the temperature, salinity, and pH of waters are obtained using a
thermometer, a hand refractometer and litmus paper. 2.5.
DATA ANALYSIS
2.5.1. SPECIES COMPOSITION The
types of mangroves found at the study site were identified using a guide book (Noor et., Al, 2006). 2.5.2. SPECIES DENSITY Species
density (Di), i.e. the number of i-type
stands in a unit area (Bengen, 2001), is known by the
formula: Note:
Di = i-th density, ni = total number of individuals of i-th type, A
= Total sampling area (m²). 2.5.3. RELATIVE DENSITY Relative
density is calculated using the formula (Andy Omar, 2018): Note:
RDi = relative density (%), ni = total number of a type, ∑ n =
total number of all types. 2.5.4. SPECIFIC FREQUENCY Type
frequency (Fi) is calculated using the formula: Note:
Fi = Frequency of i-th type, pi = Number of sample plots
where i-th type is found, ∑ p = Number of total sample plots created. 2.5.5. RELATIVE FREQUENCY The
relative frequency (RFi) is calculated using the formula: Note: RFi = i-type relative frequency, Fi
= i-type frequency, ∑ F = Number frequency for all types 2.5.6. CLOSURE
TYPE Closure
of type (Ci) is the area of closure of the i-th type
in a particular unit (Bengen, 2001): Note: Ci = Closure type, BA =
Stem diameter at breast height, A = Total area of sampling area
(m²). 2.5.7. RELATIVE
CLOSURE Relative
closure (RCi) is the ratio
between i-type closure and total area of closure for all types
with the formula (Bengen, 2001): Note:
RCi = relative closure (%), Ci = closure of the i type,
∑ C = total closure for all types. 2.5.8. IMPORTANT
VALUE INDEX Important
value index (IVI) is the sum of relative density (RDi), relative
frequency (RFi), and i-type relative closure (RCi) of
mangroves (Andy Omar, 2018), with the formula: IVI
= RDi + RFi + RCi The
importance of a species ranges from 0 to 300. This important value provides an
overview of the influence or role of a mangrove species in an ecosystem. 2.5.9. DIVERSITY INDEX Species
diversity can be said as heterogeneity of species and is a characteristic of
species structure. The formula used to calculate diversity is the Shannon
Diversity Index, which is: and Note:
H '= Shannon diversity index, ni = number of individual species i, N = total
number of mangrove individuals. 2.5.10. UNIFORMITY INDEX (EVENNES INDEX) Uniformity
can be interpreted as the spread of individuals between different species and
can be obtained from the relationship between diversity (H ') and maximum
diversity. To find uniformity, uniformity index is used using the formula: Note:
J = Shannon uniformity index, H’= Shannon diversity index, H’ max = Maximum
uniformity index value, S = Number of mangrove species. Uniformity
index values range between 0 and 1. If the index is close to 0
means that uniformity among species in low communities that reflect the wealth
between individuals possessed by each species is very much different.
Conversely, if close to 1, it means uniformity between species can be said to
be relatively evenly distributed or in other words it can be said that the
number of individuals in each species is relatively similar, the difference is
not too striking (Lund, 1979). 2.5.11. SIMPSON DOMINANCE INDEX Simpson
dominance index is used to determine the presence or absence of dominance of
certain species, with the formula: Note:
= Simpson dominance
index, S = number of taxa / types of mangrove category, ni = Number of i-th
species, n = total number of mangrove individual. Simpson's
dominance index ranges between 0 and 1 with the understanding that, if close to
0 (zero), it means that in the observed community structure there are no speies
that extreme dominate the community. This shows that the condition of community
structure is in a stable condition, prime environmental conditions and there is
no ecological pressure (stress) on the biota / species in the habitat in
question. If the dominance index approaches 1 (one), it means that in the
community structure observed species are found that dominate other species.
This reflects the community structure in an unstable state, ecological stress
occurs. 3. Results3.1.
SPECIES COMPOSITION
The
composition of mangrove species found on the coast of Ujung batu, Tamalatea
District, Jeneponto Regency, there are 5 types of mangroves (Table 4), namely: Avicennia aba, Avicennia marina, Avicennia
officinalis, Sonneratia alba, and Rhizopora stylosa. Table 1: Types of
mangroves found in Ujung Batu beach, Flores Sea, Jeneponto Regency
Note: + = There are types of mangroves i =
There is no type I Figure 2: Type of mangrove is found in the waters
of Ujung Batu, Flores Sea, Jeneponto Regency (a. Avicennia alba, b. A. marina,
c, A. officinalis, d. Sonneratia alba, e. Rhizophora stylosa). Based
on the 3 research stations, on the coast of Ujung Batu, Flores Sea, Jeneponto
Regency, a graph of the percentage of mangrove species abundance was obtained
as follows. There are 4 types of mangroves at Station I with the following
successive percentages; a) Avicennia alba
61%, b) A. marina 18%, c) Sonneratia alba 14%, and d) Rhizophora stylosa 7% (Figur 3a). At station II also found 4 consecutive
mangrove compositions with the following abundance percentages; a) Avicennia alba 72%, b) A. marina 17%, c) A. officinalis 4%, and d) Sonneratia
alba 7% (Figure 3b). And at station
III found composition of 5 species of mangroves with a percentage of abundance
in a row are: a) A. alba 50%, b) A. marina 33%, c) A. officinalis 7%, d) Rhizophora
stylosa 7%, and e) Sonneratia alba
3% (Figure 3c). Figure
3:
Composition of mangrove species and abundance at each research station in Ujung
Batu coastal waters, Flores Sea, Jeneponto Regency 3.2. SPECIES DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITYBased
on the research station at the research location, the density (Di)
and reative density (RDi) of each type of mangrove can be seen in
the following Table 2. Table 2: Species density
and relative mangroves at 3 research stations in Ujung Batu Beach, Flores Sea
3.3. SPECIFIC FREQUENCY AND RELATIVE FREQUENCYBased
on the research station at the research location, the specific frequency (Fi) and relative frequency (RFi)
of each type of mangrove can be seen in the following Table 3. Table
3:
Relative frequency and mangrove specific frequency at 3 research stations in Ujung
Batu Beach, Flores Sea
3.4. Closure Type and Relative ClosureBased
on the research station at the research location, the closure type (Ci) and
relative
closure (RCi) of each type of mangrove can be seen in the following Table 4. Table
4:
Closure type and relative closure at
3 research stations in Ujung Batu Beach, Flores Sea
3.5. IMPORTANT VALUE INDEX, DIVERSITY INDEX, EVENNES INDEX, AND SIMPSON 3.5.1. DOMINANCE INDEX Based
on the research station at the research location, the Important Value Index
(IVI), diversity index (H1), evennes index (E), and Simpson
dominance index (SDI) of mangrove community can be seen in the following Table
5. Table 5: Important value index at 3 research
stations in Ujung Batu Beach, Flores Sea
3.6. ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERSWater
quality parameters include: the degree of acidity (pH), salinity, temperature,
and texture of the soil or mangrove substrate. The results of measurements of
these water quality parameters are listed in Table 6, while the results of
substrate texture analysis are listed in Table 7. Table
6: Range
and average measurement of mangrove ecosystem water quality during the study in
Ujung Batu Coastal Waters, Flores Sea, Jeneponto Regency.
Table 7: Substrate texture
of mangrove ecosystems in Ujung Batu Beach, Flores Sea, Jeneponto Regency
4. DISCUSSION4.1. SPECIES COMPOSITIONAvicennia
alba
species were found at each observation station at the study site. A. alba grows on clay substrate and
adheres with a salinity of 33 - 34 ppt, temperature around 28-31 oC
and acidity
level 7-8 (Table 6). A. alba has root that is shaped like a finger and
has a grayish stem color and a smooth bark surface. Leaves of the type A.alba have an elliptical shape and very
smooth surface. Leaf length measurements found at the observation station
ranged from 6.72 - 10.23 cm and leaf widths ranged from 2.41 - 4.98 cm. The fruits of A.alba
are conical and yellowish green (Fig. 2a). Noor
et. al. (2006) have explained that A.alba forms a horizontal root system
and complicated root breaths. The root of the breath is usually thin,
finger-shaped (or like asparagus) covered by lenticels.
The outer bark is grayish or dark brownish, some overgrown with small
bumps, while others sometimes have a smooth surface. In the old stems, thin
powder is sometimes found. The surface of the leaves is smooth, the upper part
is shiny green, pale, lancet-shaped (like acacia leaves) sometimes elliptical,
while the tip is tapered with a size of 10 x 4 cm., fruits
such as cones or chilies or cashews, light greenish yellow with a size of 4 x 2
cm. A.
marina was
found growing and developing at each observation station at salinity of 30 - 34
ppt and temperatures of 28 - 31 ° C with clayey substrate (Table 6). The fruits
of A. marina are round and small in size. The leaves are shiny green and
slightly rounded with a length ranging from 7.08 - 10.36 cm and a width ranging
from 3.04 - 5.79 cm (Fig. 2b). Halidah
(2014) said that the Avicennia marina fruit is ovoid shaped like a mango, the
tip of the blunt fruit is 1 cm long, the upper surface of the leaves is shiny
green and the lower surface is gray and gloomy green. Vegetation in the form of
shrubs or trees with a height of 12 m, sometimes reaching 20 m, compound type
flowers with 8-14 flowers per stem. grows on muddy soils on river banks, dry
areas and tolerant of high salinity. A.
officinalis
was found to grow and develop at a fairly high salinity of 30 - 32 ppt and
water temperatures between 28 - 31 ° C at the observation site with clayey
substrates. The mangrove leaves are dark green on the upper surface and
yellowish green on the bottom. The length of leaves in this species ranges from
8.06 - Sonneratia
alba was found at each
observation station at the observation site. This species grows and develops in
clayey substrate types with a salinity range of 30 - 34 ppt and water
temperatures between 28 - 31 ° C. The leaves are round and green and the fruit
is ball shaped and also green. Leaf length ranges from 9.07 - 10.44 cm and width
5.17 - 7.32 cm (Table 6). According
to Sugiarto and Willy (1996) S. alba
grows on muddy substrates, the bark is creamy green to brown with fine cracks
on the surface. S. alba has peg root (pneumatophore)
which is seen when the sea water is receding, thick leaves are oval shaped
bright green and located opposite each other (opposite). Flowering cider is
quite a lot, there is at the end of the branches and white. Ball-shaped fruit
that is grayish green with a diameter of 5-7.5 cm. This plant can be used as a
wood ribs and elbows boat (Fig. 2d). S. alba is found in the esrtuary region
with sandy substrate. According to Bengen (2004), S. alba can grow well in sand, mud, or sandy mud sub-locations. Rhizophora stylosa was found growing and developing at station
1 and station 3 with clay and clay substrates with salinity of water ranging
from 30 - 34 ppt and temperature 28 - 31 ° C (Table 6). The
leaves of R. stylosa are about 9.70 -11.36 cm in length and width
ranging from 4.04 - 6.32 cm. The fruit of R. stylosa is long and has a pointed
tip (Fig. 2e). According
to Backer (1965) R. stylosa leaves have a smooth surface, glossy,
tapered tip, oval shape with a widening in the middle, measuring 8 -12 cm long,
the bottom surface of the leaf bone greenish, black spots uneven. Branched garlands 2-3 times, located under the
leaves, each branch 4-16 single flowers, petals 4, ivory yellow, crown 4,
whitish, stamens 8, stems pistil clearly, length 0.4 - 0.6 cm. R. stylosa fruit
has elongated shape with a size of 20-60 cm. The
highest composition of mangrove species in the study site was A. alba (70%). The abundance of
Avicennia is due to its ability to adapt to relatively high-water salinity
(30-34 ppt). According to Noor et. al. (2006) Avicennia sp. is a clan that has the ability to tolerate a broad
range of salinity compared to other clans. The
lowest species composition was owned by R.
stylosa type at station 1 and station 3 which was 7% and S. alba type at station 3 was 3%. At
least species are found because both types of mangroves are less able to grow
and develop at high salinity (Noor et. al., 2006). 4.2. DENSITYBased
on observations of the type of A. alba
has a very high density that is 72.41 ind. m-2. Noor, et al. (2006) said that the types
of Avicennia sp. generally live in
coastal areas with relatively high salinity of sea water. Type A. marina is a type of mangrove which
also has the second highest density obtained at the observation site. Type A. marina
has a very high adaptability to aquatic environments with high salinity. The texture of sandy clay substrate makes mangrove
species of Rhizophora mucronata, R.
apiculata, Avicennia sp., Sonneratia sp. and B. gymnorrhiza can adapt and even in extreme conditions due to
storms and big waves (Giesen et., al, 2007). 4.3. FREQUENCYThe results of the
analysis of the relative frequency of mangroves that have been obtained at the
study site at the tree level, the highest is A. alba (44.44%) while the lowest relative frequency is A. officinalis, S. alba and R. stylosa which is 9.09%. The high
frequency of A. Alba, due to its
adaptive power which is tolerant of the high-salinity marine environment,
according to Noor (1999), Avicennia
sp. is a clan that has the ability to tolerate a broad range of salinity
compared to other clans. 4.4. CLOSURE
In
general, mangrove closure at Station 1 is 45.25% higher compared to other
stations. This is because the mangrove at station I has a larger trunk
circumference so that it affects the closure. A. alba has a high relative closure, this shows that A. alba type dominates the mangrove
community in the study site. 4.5. IMPORTANT VALUE INDEXBased
on observations obtained the highest IVI value in type A. alba (Table 5). This can be interpreted that the type of A. alba has an important role in the
ecosystem. Bengen (2000) states that the high
IVI shows that mangroves have a very large role and function in the ecosystem.
Some organisms such as fish, crabs, shrimps, mollusks and others in this
ecosystem need mangrove litter as food, and vegetation as a shelter, foraging
and spawning. 4.6. ECOLOGICAL INDEXBased on the results of
research conducted in Ujung Batu Beach, Jeneponto Regency, the results of the
ecological index are as follows: Diversity Index (H') = 0,52, Uniformity Index (E) = 0,16, and Simpson Domination Index (SDI) = 0,35 (Table 5). Based
on Odum (1993) criteria, the value is included in the low category, this can be
seen from the few types of mangroves obtained from the observation site and the
presence of one type of mangrove dominates. The low value of the diversity
index is due to community activities in utilizing the mangrove area such as
searching for mangrove crabs and also logging for the opening of ponds. Maiti and Chowdhury (2013), stated that the opening
of ponds for aquaculture, overexploitation and increased pollution loads is one
of the activities that contribute the most to the causes of mangrove ecosystem
degradation, and this will spur the destruction of habitats and biodiversity in
the region. The
diversity value of a community is very dependent on the number of species and
the number of individuals found in the community. The diversity of types of a
community will be high if the community is composed of many types and no
species dominate. Conversely, a community has a low species diversity value, if
the community is organized by a few species and there is a dominant species
(Indriyanto, 2006). Uniformity values describe the individual
distribution of each type of mangrove. Based on the criteria of Lund (1979),
this value is classified as low. The low uniformity index at the study site is
due to the number of individuals of each species that is different and uneven
and there are species that dominate the community. If the greater the
uniformity index value indicates that within the community there is no specific
species that is dominant (Santana, 1991). The
highest dominance index value was found at station II (0.52)(Table 5). The
dominance index value is considered relatively high because there is a species
that is very dominating from the station. Simpson's dominance index ranges
between 0 and 1 with the understanding that if it approaches 0 (zero), it means
that in the community structure observed there are no speies that extreme
dominate the community. This shows that the condition of the community
structure in the study location is still relatively stable. If the dominance
index approaches 1 (one), it means that in the community structure observed
species are found that dominate other species, and
this reflects the structure of the community in an unstable state, in the
community there is ecological stress. 4.7. MANGROVE VEGETATION ARRANGEMENTAt
the seedling level, mangrove vegetation dominated as many as 1127 individuals
consisting of 2 types, namely: A. alba
(1012 indiv.) And A. marina 115
(indiv.). This means that at the seedling level A. alba is a dominant species and is a species that is regenerating
at research sites. For tillers, mangrove vegetation predominates by 91
individuals, consisting of A. alba
(76 indiv.), Rhizopora stylosa (3
indiv.), and A. officinalis (12
indiv.). For the tree level there are 4
types of mangroves namely A. alba, A.
marina, Soneratia alba and Rhizopora
stylosa. At this location, it is dominated by A. alba species, namely as many as 53 individuals. At
the tree level, the largest IVI is owned by which is 164.48 with a density of
0.1325 ind./400 m2. Based on the above analysis, this means that for
the level of trees, seedlings, and saplings, A. alba is the dominant species in Ujung Batu coastal waters, Flores
Sea, Jeneponto Regency. Analysis of
seedlings and saplings shows that, A.
alba is still young and naturally this vegetation will regenerate without
the need for human intervention. Likewise the
presence of tree levels in A. alba
species indicates that this species was successful in its growth. In the coastal areas of Indonesia, with muddy clay
substrate is very good for the growth of various types of mangroves, especially
Avicennia, And Rhizopora (Kint, 1934). 5. CONCLUSIONSBased
on research results in the waters of the Ujung Batu coast, Flores Sea,
Jeneponto Regency, there were 5 species that were found at the observation
site, namely: A. alba, A. marina, A.
officinalis, Rhizophora stylosa and Sonneratia alba. A. alba species as the
dominant species were found at each observation station. The range of
diversity, uniformity, and dominance index values indicates that
the structure of mangrove communities in these locations is not evenly
distributed, and does not have diverse vegetation communities, this is due to
the discovery of dominant species. Water
quality for mangrove vegetation as a buffer zone for coastal areas such as
temperature, salinity, acidity and type of substrate is still in accordance
with the environmental feasibility of the coastal ecosystem. 6. SUGGESTIONFurther
research is needed on the condition of the mangrove environment and its
biological aspects. In addition, research on the socio-cultural aspects of the
local community needs attention due to the sustainability of the ecosystem. SOURCES OF FUNDINGNone. CONFLICT OF INTERESTNone. ACKNOWLEDGMENTNone. REFERENCES[1] Andy Omar, S. Bin. 2018. Buku Ajar Ekologi Perairan. Lembaga Kajian dan Pengembangan Pendidikan, Pusat Kajian dan Peningkatan Aktivitas Intruksional, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar. [2] Backer, C.A, dan Van den Brink, Jr. R. C. B. 1965. Flora of Java, Vol. II, Published Under The Auspeces of The Rijkher Barium. Lieden. [3] Bengen, G. D., 2004. Pedoman Teknis Pengenalan dan Pengelolaan Hutan Mangrove. Pusat Kajian Sumber Daya Pesisir dan Lautan –IPB, Bogor. [4] Bengen. 2001. Pengenalan dan Pengelolaan Ekosistem Mangrove. PKSPL IPB. Bogor. [5] Bengen, D.G., 2000. Sinopsis Ekosistem dan Sumberdaya Alam Pesisir. Pusat Kajian Sumberdaya Pesisir dan Lautan-IPB. Bogor. [6] Buchanan, J. B. 1984. Sediment Analysis. p 41-65 In N. A. Holmes and A. D. Mc Intyre (eds.). Method for the Study of Marine Benthos. Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford and Edinburgh. [7] Dinas Kehutanan Sulawesi Selatan, 2006. Rencana Penanaman Mangrove di Sulawesi Selatan. Dinas Kehutanan Sulawesi selatan. Makassar. [8] Giesen, W., Stephan, W., Max, Z., dan Liesbeth, S., 2007. Mangrove Guidebook For Southesth Asia. FAO and Wetlands International, Bangkok. [9] Halidah dan H. Kama. 2014. Penyebaran alami Avicennia marina (Forsk) Vierh dan Sonneratia Alba Smith pada Substrat pasir di Desa Tiwoho, Sulawesi Utara. Indonesian Rehabilitation Forest Journal, 1 (1) 51-58. Bogor. [10] Indriyanto, 2006. Ekologi Hutan. Jakarta: Penerbit PT Bumi Aksara. [11] Kint, A. 1934. De luchtfoto en de topografische terreingesteldheid in de mangrove. De Tropische Natuur, 23: 173-189. [12] Kitamura, S., C. Anwar, A. Chaniago, and S. Baba, S. 1997. Handbook of Mangrove In Indonesia. ISME. Japan. [13] Lund, H.F. 1979. Industrial Pollution Control Handbook. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York. [14] Maiti, S. K., Chowdhury, A. 2013. Effects of anthropogenic pollution on mangrove biodiversity: A review. Environmental Protection. 4(12):1428 – 1434. [15] Noor, Y.S.M., Khazali, I.N.N., Suryadiputra. 2006. Panduan Pengenalan Mangrove di Indonesia. Indonesia Programme. Ditjen PKA dan Wetland International. Bogor. [16] Odum, E.P., 1993. Dasar-dasar Ekologi. Edisi ke III. Terjemahan Tjahjono Saminga. Penerbit Gadjah Mada Press, Yogyakarta. [17] Sugiarto dan Willy. 1996. Penghijauan Pantai. PT. Penebar Swadaya. Jakarta.
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