Article Type: Research Article Article Citation: Toussaint Mikpon, Nadège A. Agbodjato, Durand Dah-Nouvlessounon,
Haziz Sina, Halfane Lehmane, Nestor R. Ahoyo, Adolphe Adjanohoun, and Lamine Baba-Moussa. (2021). EFFICACY OF CHITOSAN EXTRACTED
FROM CRAB EXOSKELETONS (CALLINECTES AMNICOLA AND CARDISOMA ARMATUM) IN
COMBINATION WITH PSEUDOMONAS PUTIDA ON THE GROWTH AND GRAIN YIELD OF MAIZE ON
FERRALLITIC SOIL IN SOUTH BENIN. International Journal of Research
-GRANTHAALAYAH, 9(1), 129-140. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v9.i1.2021.3045 Received Date: 28 December 2020
Accepted Date: 30 January 2021 Keywords: Crab Exoskeletons Chitosan Pseudomonas
Putida Maize Cultivation Valorization ABSTRACT The objective of the study was to evaluate chitosans
produced from the exoskeletons of water (Callinectes amnicola)
and land (Cardisoma armatum)
crabs for use in agriculture in Benin. Then, the effects of these chitosans were combined with Pseudomonas putida in order to see their synergistic effects on the growth and
yield of maize seeds of the variety EVDT 97 STR C1 for 80 days. The
experimental design was a block of 13 treatments with three (03) replicates.
After 60 DAS in the field, application of the combination C. amicola + P. putida + 50% NPK and C. armatum + P. putida + 50% NPK showed the highest
average heights. Plants treated with the combination of C. armatum + P. putida + 50% NPK and C. amnicola + 50% NPK gave the best corn grain yields with
increases of 51.68% and 45.57% respectively. This study confirms that sources
of chitosan from shellfish exoskeletons are available in Benin and shows the
potential to use chitosan alone or in combination with Rhizobacteria as bio
fertilizers to improve productivity and increase maize yield in Benin while
reducing the use of chemical fertilizers.
1. INTRODUCTIONFaced
with the ever-increasing population of Africa and West Africa and the resulting
growing food needs, increasing yields in agriculture has become a major
challenge. However, the agricultural sector is facing problems, one of the most
important of which is the degradation of soil fertility. The overuse of
external inputs such as mineral fertilizers and pesticides can reduce
considerable increases in food production but also reduce soil fertility and
its biological components [1]. This also has adverse consequences for
human health. In response to this problem, improving soil fertility is one of
the common strategies for increasing agricultural production. Thus, it becomes
important to develop different biological control methods using natural
organisms to reduce the effects of a harmful organism. The
appearance on the market of agricultural inputs of various products and
substances aimed at improving the functioning of the soil, the plant or the
interactions between soil and plant through the stimulation of biological
processes is arousing the interest of actors in the agricultural world [2]. These substances are called bio fertilizers
and among them are chitin and chitosan. Chitosan is a biodegradable substance
of natural origin obtained by the deacetylation of chitin, which is found,
among others, in the exoskeletons of crustaceans such as lobsters, shrimps and
crabs [3]. In Benin, work on chitosan applications is
very recent and promising [4],[5]. The use
of chitosan, in spite of the very interesting results obtained worldwide in the
fields of agricultural yield improvement [6],[7],[8],[9] is not accessible to the majority of
producers in poor countries because of its price, which ranges from 23 to 9160
euros/kg depending on the quality[10]. Chitosan is a high value-added product
obtained from a cheap raw material [10]. According to 2003 data, the world catches
of crabs are estimated at 1.2 million t/year [11]. However, it should be
pointed out that since crab is a coastal animal that is very easy to
catch, this figure does not take into account the individual and artisanal
fisheries, especially in poor countries where crab represents an important
source of animal protein [12]. Benin produces a significant quantity of
crabs annually. Indeed, according to Benin Agricultural Ministry data, in its
2016-2018 Management Program Budget, crab production should increase from
3637.19 tons in 2013 to 6639.19 tons in 2018. According to Rurangwa
et al. [12], 70% of Benin's total crab production is
exported to Togo and Ghana. Despite the growing human consumption of these
products, the huge quantities of waste generated are simply dumped into the
marine environment or into public dumpsites, creating serious pollution
problems in the process. The biodegradation of shells of crustaceans is very slow [13]. In the need to process and use, crab waste
that contains several bioactive compounds such as chitin [3],[14],[15] showed the availability of crabs and based
on different production procedures of chitosan found in the literature [3]. Mikpon et al. [16] have extracted chitosan from exoskeletons of
water crabs (Callinectes amnicola) and land
crabs (Cardisoma armatum)
collected locally in Southern Benin. 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS2.1. STUDY AREAThe study
was carried out on the experimental station of the Centre de Recherches Agricoles Sud
(CRA-Sud) of INRAB, located in Niaouli in the commune of Allada
(Figure 1). The experimental station is located at an altitude of 105°,
longitude 2° 19' East and latitude 6° 12' North. The climate is of maritime
sub-equatorial type with two (02) rainy seasons and two (02) dry seasons. The
soil is ferrallitic, deep and without concretion [17]. The choice of site for the implementation
of the trial was made taking into account the fact
that the decline in soil fertility is a priority constraint. The site is flat
with a maximum slope of 2% and not flooded. Figure 1: Geographic Location of Study Setting 2.2. BIOLOGICAL MATERIALSThe
different chitosans extract respectively from
exoskeletons of water crabs (Callinectes amnicola)
and land crabs (Cardisoma armatum). The Rhizobacteria PGPR named Pseudomonas
putida was used in this study to see the synergistic effect of the
combination of PGPR and extracted Chitosan. This strain was isolated and
identified by Adjanohoun et al.[18]and then concerted in MH broth at - 80°C at
the Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Typing in Microbiology (LBTMM). 2.3. SOIL PREPARATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SITESoil
preparation consisted of clearing the plot with machetes, ploughing the soil to
a depth of 15 cm using a tractor attached to a disc plough and levelling the
soil with a tractor attached to a harrow. The elementary plots were delimited
using the "3 - 4 - 5" method. 2.4. EXPERIMENTAL DEVICEThe large
plot factor was the fertilizer (NPK) dose and the modalities (Table 1) of the
other two factors were combined and randomized on the small plots. Table 1: Factors and modalities of experimental device in the field
The
experimental design (Figure 2) set up was a divided plot design with three
replicates. The plots were divided into three large blocks representing the
replicates. Each block was divided into three large plots (two had 6 small
plots and one had one small plot). Figure 2: Diagram of experimental device Each
elementary plot has a surface area of 12.8 m² and is made up of 4 lines of 4 m
in length with 0.80 m spacing. The distance separating the plots from each
other and the repetitions separating them from each other was 1.5 m and 2 m respectively. The useful plot has an area of 6.4 m2,
on which data were collected at the two (02) central lines. The treatments
evaluated are defined as follows: T1:
without chitosan Without PGPR (absolute control) T2: 100%
NPK T3:
Chitosan extracted from Callinectes amnicola T4:
Chitosan extracted from Cardisoma armatum T5: 50%
NPK T6:
Chitosan extracted from Callinectes amnicola
+50% NPK T7:
Chitosan extracted from Cardisoma armatum +50% NPK T8: P.
putida T9:
Chitosan extracted from Callinectes+ P. putida T10:
Chitosan extracted from Cardisoma armatum + P. putida T11
Chitosan extracted from Callinectes + P. putida+50% NPK T12:
Chitosan extracted from C. armatum + P. putida+50%
NPK T13: P.
putida+50% NPK 2.5. CHITOSAN PREPARATION AND SEED COATINGThe
powders of the two crab species were used for the extraction of chitosan
according to the extraction methodology. The seeds were coated in the resulting
mixture. They were then dried in ambient air (Figure 3).
Figure 3:
Chitosan powder extracted from C. amnicola and C. armatum (a),
Corn seeds coated with chitosan (b) 2.6. PREPARATION OF PGPR SUSPENSIONSThe Pseudomonas
putida strains were revived by transplanting on agar media for 24 hours.
Bacterial suspensions of PGPR were obtained by culture in nutrient medium (MH
broth) for 24 hours at 30°C. Then, another culture was carried out from the
previous 24 hours at a rate of 10 ml of each culture in 1500 ml of nutrient
medium (MH broth). After the 24 h incubation, the culture was then adjusted to
a microbial concentration of about 1 x 108 CFU/ml (OD 0.45 at 610
nm) with a spectrophotometer according to the method described by Govindappa et al. [19]. 2.7. COATING, SOWING AND SEED INOCULATIONThe
sowings were made with a spacing of 0.40 m × 0.80 m at a rate of 02 seeds
previously coated with chitosan per pots on June 07, 2019 with application of
NPK. Two (2) coated (Figure 4 a) or uncoated corn seeds were placed in a 5 cm
pot. Then according to each treatment, the corn seeds were inoculated with 10
ml of bacterial suspension of about 108 CFU/ml (Figure 4 b). In
addition, the trial was protected by nets to prevent the destruction of the
plants by animals.
Figure 4:
(a): coated seeds, (b): sowing and inoculation 2.8. EVALUATION OF GROWTH AND YIELD PARAMETERS IN THE FIELDParameters related
to the growth of corn plants Height
and diameter at the collar of the plants were measured every fifteen (15) days
using tape measures and calipers respectively from the time of plant emergence
until 60 days after sowing (DAS). Data for the calculation of plant leaf area
will be measured only at 60 DAS [20]. Plant biomass and
maize grain yield parameters The maize
yield data collected were plant biomass and maize kernel weight. The biomass
produced was determined at harvest. Thus, for each elementary plot, 20 maize
plants were uprooted, cut into small pieces and mixed
in a bucket. The mixture was placed in a labelled husk, which was placed in an
oven at 100°C for 72 hours, during which time the husk was regularly removed
from the oven and weighed, using a precision scale, until the weight was
completely stabilized. Corn
grain yield was determined as follows: the cobs of six (06) corn plants were
harvested from two (02) center rows of each elementary plot, despatched and shelled. The obtained maize grains were
dried in an oven at 65°C for 72 hours until constant weight was obtained, then
the grains were weighed using a scale (Highland HCB 302, Max: 3001g) with an
accuracy of 0.1 g. Grain maize yield values were obtained according to the
following formula, used by Adjanohoun et al. [18] (2012): Where: ·
R
is the maize yield, expressed in t/ha; ·
P
is the mass of maize per elementary area of calculation, expressed in kg; ·
S
is the area of the useful plot in m2; ·
10000
is the conversion from m2 to ha; and ·
1000
is conversion from kilogram (kg) to ton (t). Statistical analysis of the data An ANOVA
analysis of variance followed by mustache boxes was performed to evaluate the
effect of the treatments on growth parameters. Then a PCR principal component
analysis was performed to evaluate the effect of treatments on growth
parameters. The matrix used was different organ measurements per treatment. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION3.1. EFFECTS OF EXTRACTED CHITOSANS ON GROWTH PARAMETERS (HEIGHT, DIAMETER, LEAF AREA)3.1.1. HEIGHT OF THE PLANTS The
results show that after 60 DAS, a good elevation of the maize plants was
observed at all treatments compared to the control. After 60 DAS, there was
good elevation of maize plants in all treatments (Figure 5). This elevation is
increasingly remarkable with the combination of plants treated with chitosan
extracted from C. amnicola (163.53 cm) or
C. armatum (155.51 cm) plus P. putida with
50% NPK. On the other hand, the plants treated with the combination of C. amnicola + P. putida+50% NPK and C. armatum + P. putida+50% NPK showed the highest average
heights with increases of 27.33% and 28.09% respectively. These even surpass
the plants treated with 100% NPK. On the other hand, only the untreated plants
(control) gave the lowest heights (128.43 cm). The difference in effect
observed was highly significant between treatments (p < 0.01) Figure 5.
These results are similar to those obtained by Jelin et al.[21]in India on height and Agbodjato
et al. [4] in Benin who also observed increases in
height of 12.85% and 17% respectively following the combination of P. putida
+ chitosan + 50% NPK compared to the control. CTL:
absolute control Cali: chitosan extracted from C. amnicola,
Cardi: chitosan extracted from C. armatum; puti: P. putida; Cali+puti:
combination of chitosan extracted from C. amnicola
and P. putida, Card+puti: combination of chitosan
extracted from C. armatum + P. putida Figure 5: Plant height at 60th DAS 3.1.2. DIAMETER AT THE COLLAR OF THE PLANTS Results
obtained from this study, clearly show a good development of the collar of all
treated plants compared to untreated plants (absolute control). The average
diameter at the highest collar was obtained with the plants having received the
contribution of the combination of: chitosan extracted from C. armatum + P. putida + 50% NPK (1.71 cm) with an
increase of 18% followed by the combination of: chitosan extracted from C. armatum + P. putida for an increase of 17.20%.
These values show that the treatment of chitosan extracted from C. armatum + P. putida with 50% NPK boosted the
development of the collar of the plants (Figure 6). The difference in effect
observed was highly significant between treatments (p < 0.01). CTL:
absolute control Cali: chitosan extracted from C. amnicola,
Cardi: chitosan extracted from C. armatum; puti: P. putida; Cali+puti:
combination of chitosan extracted from C. amnicola
and P. putida, Card+puti: combination of
chitosan extracted from C. armatum + P.
putida. Figure 6: Plant crown diameter at 60 DAS. 3.1.3. LEAF AREA Regarding
the foliar surface, the plants treated with the combination of P. putida
+ 50% NPK (579.37 cm2) and C. armatum
+ 50% NPK resulted in a better development of the foliar surface of the plants
with increases of 35.19% and 24.97%, respectively, compared to the control.
Moreover (Figure 7), the use of 50% NPK in combination with PGPR or chitosan
extracted from C. armatum allowed to further
boost the result. The difference in effect observed was significant between
treatments (p < 0.05). These
results also confirm those of Shaharoona et al. [22] who mentioned the efficacy of Pseudomonas on
increasing maize plant growth. This also explains the positive effect observed
on maize plant growth and development by Walker et al.[23]. Indeed, PGPRs have direct positive effects
on plant growth and yield increase of crops such as vegetables, apple, lemon,
blueberry, blackberry, apricot, raspberry, sugar beet etc. [24],[25]. As for chitosan, it stimulates the plant
for the synthesis of protective agents, and behaves as
a fertilizer that accelerates germination and plant growth [26]. CTL:
absolute control; Cali: chitosan extracted from C. amnicola;
Cardi: chitosan extracted from C. armatum; puti: P. putida; Cali+puti:
combination of chitosan extracted from C. amnicola
and P. putida, Card+puti: combination of
chitosan extracted from C. amnicola + P. putida. Figure 7: Leaf area of plants at 60th DAS Increases
in plant growth parameters by PGPR and chitosan may be due to the increase in
local nutrient availability, the ease of nutrient uptake by plants and the
decrease in toxicity produced by heavy metals Burd et
al. [27]. Several authors argue that PGPRs can
promote host plant growth through various mechanisms such as nitrogen (N2)
fixation and solubilization of trace elements such as phosphate (P) [25],[28],[29]. In the same vein, work carried out by Wanichpongpan et al. [30] showed the stimulating effect of chitosan on
Gerbera jamesonii and Gladiolus spp.
plants respectively. Hasegawa et al. [31] reported that the increase in height and
diameter on onions was obtained following the cultivation of Arisaema ternatipartitum in a substrate with chitosan added. 3.2. EFFECTS OF EXTRACTED CHITOSANS ON YIELD PARAMETERS (PLANT BIOMASS AND GRAIN YIELD)3.2.1. BIOMASS YIELD OF PLANTS Table 2
presents the results of the biomass yield of the different treatments. The
table shows a remarkable difference in the yield of fresh biomass above and
below ground between the different treatments compared to the control. The best
fresh biomass yield was obtained with the combination of C. armatum + P. putida + 50% NPK, followed by the
combination of C. armatum + P. putida
with increases of 18.42% and 17.20%. On the other hand, the fresh underground
biomass was obtained with the combination of C. armatum
+ P. putida followed by the combination of C. amnicola
+ P. putida with increases of 93.52% and 90.74%. With regard to the dry biomass yield, both above and below ground, it can be noted
that the yield of all treated plants exceeded control. The highest yield was
obtained with the combination of C. armatum +
P. putida + 50% NPK for the above-ground dry biomass and the combination of
C. armatum + P. putida for the
below-ground dry biomass for increases of 12.12% and 67.28%, respectively. Dobbelaere et al. [32],[33] showed that inoculation of wheat
plants with Azospirillum brasilense induced an increase in the dry weight of the
root system and the upper part of the root. In addition, Lemanceau
et al. [34] claimed that bacteria of the genus
Pseudomonas are able to synthesize siderophors
called pyoverdines or pseudobactins. These molecules
are involved in improving plant growth and health. Table 2: Biomass yield of plants
3.2.2. CORN GRAIN YIELD Figure 8
shows the corn grain yield results. There was good yield performance in all
treatments compared to the control plants. The best yield was induced by the
combination of chitosan extracted from C. armatum
+ P. putida +50% NPK (2.71 T/ha) followed by that of chitosan extracted
from C. amnicola +50% NPK (2.63 T/ha) with
respective increases of 51.68% and 45.57% compared to the absolute control. It
should be noted that the 50% NPK in combination with the chitosan extracted
from C. armatum + P. putida allowed to
increase this yield more and more. The difference in effect observed was highly
significant between treatments (p < 0.01). CTL:
absolute control Cali: chitosan extracted from C. amnicola,
Cardi: chitosan extracted from C. armatum; puti: P. putida; Cali+puti:
combination of chitosan extracted from C. amnicola
and P. putida, Card+puti: combination of chitosan
extracted from C. amnicola + P. putida. Figure 8: Variation in Maize Grain Yield 4. CONCLUSIONThe
combined effects of chitosan obtained from local crab exoskeletons (C. amnicola and C. armatum)
with Pseudomonas putida had a positive effect on maize plant growth
parameters such as height, diameter at the collar and leaf area on ferrallitic soil in southern Benin. Good yield performance
(plant biomass and grain yield) was obtained in all treatments compared to the
control plants. The combination of chitosan extracted from C. armatum + P. putida + 50% NPK (2.7 T/ha of
maize) and chitosan extracted from C. amnicola
+ 50% NPK (2.6 T/ha of maize) resulted in respective increases of 51.7% and
45.6% compared to the absolute control. These results augur well for the
possibility of using extracted chitosan in combination with P. putida to
improve maize productivity in South Benin while reducing the recommended
fertilizer dose. SOURCES OF FUNDING
This
research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public,
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The
author have declared that no competing interests exist. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors sincerely thank
the managers of the West Africa Productivity Program (WAPP) and the National
Maize Specialization Center (CNS-Maize) for agreeing
to finance this study.
REFERENCES
[1] Alamri R., Ben Abdallah M., Ben Hamza
A., Labidi S. Installation d'une
unité de production de biofertilisants.
Institut National Agronomique
de Tunisie. Seminar report 2016, II
http://www.memoireonline.com/01/16/9399/. [2] Faessel L., Tostivin
C. Les produits de stimulation en
agriculture: un état des connaissances.
Notes et Etudes Socio-Economique, 2016, 12 (40),
7-39. [3] Oanh T., Robert H., Frederic M.,
Patrick N. Valorisation des résidus
industriels de pêches pour
la transformation de chitosane par technique hydrothermo-chimique. Journal of Water Science, 2007,
20(3), 253-262. [4] Agbodjato A.N., Noumavo
P.A., Adjanohoun A., Dagbénonbakin
G., Atta M., Rodriguez A.F., de la Noval Pons B.M.,
Baba-Moussa L. Response of maize (Zea mays. L) crop
to biofertilisation with plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria and chitosan under field conditions. Journal of Experimental
Biology and Agricultural Sciences, 2015, 3(6), 566-574. [5] Agbodjato A.N., Noumavo
P.A., Adjanohoun A., Agbessi
L., Baba-Moussa L. Synergistic Effects of plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
and Chitosan on in vitro seeds Germination, Greenhouse growth, and nutrient
uptake of Maize (Zea mays L.). Biotechnology Research
International, 2016, Article ID 7830182, 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7830182 [6] Kumar M.NV.R. A review of chitin
and chitosan applications. Reactive & Functional Polymers, 2000, 46(1),
1-27. [7] Sharp R.G. A Review of the
Applications of Chitin and Its Derivatives in Agriculture to Modify
Plant-Microbial Interactions and Improve Crop Yields. Agronomy, 2013, 3(4),
757-793, doi:10.3390/agronomy3040757. [8] Deepmala K., Hemantaranjan
A., Bharti S., Nishant B.A. A Future Perspective in Crop Protection: Chitosan
and its Oligosaccharides. Advances in Plants and Agriculture Research, 2014,
1(1): 6. http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/apar.2014.01.00006. [9] Hadwiger L.A. CHITOSAN - Molecular
Forms with Potential in Agriculture and Medicine. Journal of Drug Design and
Research, 2017, 4(2): 1036. [10]
Bornet A. and Teissedre
P.L. Intérêt de l'utilisation
de chitine, chitosane et de
leurs dérivés en œnologie. International
Journal of Vine and Wine Sceinces, 2005, 39 (4),
199-207. [11]
Diallo
A. and Thiam N. Module de Formation des Formateurs
sur les Crabes d’Eau Douce. Wetlands International Afrique: Dakar. 2010, 124 p. [12]
Rurangwa E., van den Berg J., Laleye
P.A., van Duijn A.P., Rothuis
A. Mission exploratoire « Pêche,
Pisciculture et Aquaculture au Bénin » un quick scan
du secteur pour des possibilités
d’interventions. IMARES Report, 2014, C072/14, 70p. [13]
Jacob
S. Valorisation des déchets:
La science se penche sur le duo crabe-crevette.
Edition N°:5054 Le 29/06/2017, https://www.leconomiste.com. [14]
Kandra
P., Challa M.Me, Jyothi
H.K. Efficient use of shrimp waste; present and future trends. Applied
Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2012, 93, 17-29
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-011-3651-2. [15]
Mikpon T., Dah-Nouvlessounon
D., Agbodjato N.A., Lehman H., Amogou
O., N’tcha C., Mousse W., Sna
H., Ahissou H., Adjanohoun
A., Baba-Moussa L. Socio-economic and cultural values of two species of crabs (Cardisoma armatum Herklots and Callinectes amnicola
Rochebrune) in Southern Benin, Africa: Management of
post-harvest losses and exoskeletons. International Journal of Fisheries and
Aquaculture. 2020a, 12(2), 36-46. [16]
Mikpon T., Agbodjato
N.A., Dah-Nouvlessounon D., Amogou
O., Lehman H., N’tcha C., Noumavo
P.A., Assogba S., Allagbe
M., Ahissou H., Adjanohoun
A., Baba-Moussa L. Extraction of chitosan from the exoskeletons of two species
of crabs (Callinectes amnicola and Cardisoma armatum) and evaluation
of its effectiveness on in vitro germination of maize (Zea
mays L.) in Benin. Journal of Global Biosciences. 2020b, 9(10), 2020, pp.
8063-8077. [17]
Aïhou K. Interaction between organic input by
Cajanus cajan and inorganic fertilization to maize in
the derived savanna of the Benin Republic. PhD Thesis submitted to the
University of Abomey-Calavi, Benin, 2003, 182 p. [18]
Adjanohoun A., Noumavo P.A., Sikirou R., Allagbé M., Gotoechan-Hodonou H., Dossa K.K.,
Yèhouénou B., Glèlè Kakaï R., Baba-Moussa L. Effets
des rhizobactéries PGPR sur le rendement
et les teneurs en macroéléments du maïs sur sol ferrallitique non dégradé au Sud-Bénin. International Journal Biological and Chemical
Sciences, 2012, 6: 279-288. [19]
Govindappa M., Bharath N., Shruthi H.B., Sadananda
T.S., Sharanappa P. Antimicrobial, antioxidant and in
vitro anti-inflammatory activity and phytochemical screening of Crotalaria
pallida Aiton. African Journal of Pharmacy and
Pharmacology 2011, 5(21), 2359-2371. DOI: 10.5897/AJPP11.038 [20]
Ruget F., Bonhomme R., Chartier
M. Estimation simple de la surface foliaire de plantes de maïs en croissance. Agronomie, 1996, 16(9): 553-562. [21]
Jelin J., Selvakumar
T.A., Dhanarajan M.S. Phytological analysis for designinig a microbial consortium to Enhance plant growth.
International Journal of Chem. Tech Research, 2013, 5 (3): 1370-1375. [22]
Shaharoona B., Arshad M., Zahir
Z.A., Khalid A. Performance of Pseudomonas spp. Containing ACC-deaminase for
Improving Growth and Yield of Maize (Zea mays L.) in
the Presence of Nitrogenous Fertilizer. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 2006,
38(9), 2971-2975. [23]
Walker
V., Bertrand C., Bellvert F., Moënne-Loccoz
Y., Bally R., Comte G. Host plant secondary metabolite profiling shows a
complex, strain-dependent response of maize to plant growth-promoting
rhizobacteria of the genus Azospirillum. The New
Phytologist, 2011, 189(2):494-506. doi:
10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03484. x. [24]
Dobbelaere S., Vanderleyden
J., Okon Y. Plant Growth-Promoting Effects of Diazotrophs
in the Rhizosphere. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 2003, 22(2), 107–149.
doi:10.1080/713610853 [25]
Cakmakci et al. [] (2006) [26]
Hadwiger
L.A., Beckman J.M. Chitosan as a component of pea-Fusarium solani
interactions. Plant Physiology, 1989, 66(2), 205–211. [27]
Burd G.I., Dixon D.G., Glick B.R. Plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria that decrease heavy metal toxicity in plants. Canadian
Journal of Microbiology, 2000, 33, 237-245. [28]
Whipps J.M. Microbial interactions and biocontrol
in the rhizosphere. Journal of Experimental Botany, 2001, 52, 487-511. [29]
Orhan
E., Esitken A., Ercisli S.,
Turan M., Sahin F. Effects
of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on yield, growth
and nutrient contents in organically growing raspberry. Scientia Horticulturae, 2006, 111(1):38-43. [30]
Wanichpongpan P., Suriyachan K.,
Chandrkrachang S. (2001). Effects of chitosan on the
growth of Gerbera flower plant (Gerbera jamesonii).
In: T. Uragami, K. Kurita, T. Fukamizo
(Eds.), Chitin and Chitosan in Life Science, Yamaguchi, 2001, 198–201. [31]
Hasegawa
A., Kanechika R., Oguni S.
Effect of low temperature and chitosan on dormancy breaking and growth of young
corms of three Arisaema species. Acta Horticultural 2005, 673: 603-609. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2005.673.83. [32]
Dobbelaere S., Croonenborghs
A., Thys A., Ptacek D., Vanderleyden
J., Dutto P., Labendera-Gonzalez
C., Caballero-Mellado J., Aguirre F., Kapulnik Y., Brener S., Burdman S., Kadouri D., Sarig S., Okon Y. Response of
Agronomically important crops to inoculation with Azospirillum.
Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 2001, 28(9): 871–879. [33]
Dobbelaere S., Croonenborghs
A., Thys A., Ptacek D., Okon
Y., Vanderleyden J. Effect of inoculation with wild
type Azospirillum brasilense
and A. irakense strains on development and nitrogen
uptake of spring wheat and grain maize. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 2002,
36, 284–297. [34]
Lemanceau P., Expert D., Gaymard
F., Bakker P.A.H.M., Briat J.F. Role of iron in
plant–microbe interactions. Advances in Botanical Research, 2009, 51, 491-549.
This work is licensed under a: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License © Granthaalayah 2014-2020. All Rights Reserved. |