Article Type: Research Article Article Citation: Avijit Dutta. (2021). HUMAN FACTORS
AFFECTING DIGITAL SECURITY. International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH, 9(1),
202-210. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v9.i1.2021.2981 Received Date: 03 January 2021 Accepted Date: 31 January 2021 Keywords: Cryptography Certifying
Authority (CA) Collective
Intelligence Digital Signature Digital Signature
Certificate (DSC) Encryption HDI NCSI World is getting
digital at an exponential rate. Commonplace activities are accomplished
increasingly over digital platform to bring in requirement of digital security
in place of only physical security. Security (physical or digital or both) is
essential for safe storage, retrieval and exchange of physical or digital data
and documents. As data/information/knowledge leading to wisdom are increasingly
getting endowed with economic values the risk for such assets being pilfered
are also increasing. This requires methods for their security being augmented
continuously. Society from past to present days are putting their best efforts
in this end. Generally, it is achieved through hiding the message from
predator’s greedy glare and ensuring its temper-free safe passage to desired
destination with deception in various forms. Associated processes are complex
and during initial days were executed with various forms of arts and riddles.
Over years technology driven solutions were evolved to ensure today’s digital security
requirements [7],[8]. Motivation/Background:
Presently occurrence of
digital security disasters is not few and far between, instead they are
alarmingly many, though technology for digital security is improving by leaps
and bounds. More often than not, in case of a digital catastrophe dominant foot
prints of human involvement are found along with technical snags. It may be
noted that technical failure can be assessed and rectified in an organized way
though causes of human involvement are difficult to judge as they are much
abstract in nature and difficult to measure. Thus, this effort to explore human
role in digital disaster. Method: In present text traditional to most current practices of securing data
storage, retrieval and disbursal are touched upon. During earlier days data
hiding technique from predator’s glare had been more of an artistic than
scientific form. Over years mathematical and statistical approach were induced
to make the system more robust though secrets are exposed even today at an
alarming rate and at times by their own creators to usher security
disasters. As the discussion progressed
results from secondary sources are presented to make a broad statement on
current scenario. Finally, indicators like NCSI (National Cyber Security Index)
and DDL (Digital Development Level) from NCSI site and HDI (Human Development
Index) from Human Development Report of 2019, produced by UNDP, are considered
for analysis to have better insight. These figures are available on public
domain for general referral [24],[25]. Results: It has been observed that beyond technical complications, human factors
play a dominant role in ensuring security.
1. INTRODUCTIONAs the world is getting increasingly digital, security consideration too is
getting associated to digital perspective along with other related issues.
Message exchange in different forms, business communications, transportations,
financial activities, industrial operations, medical activities etc. all are
getting aboard digital platform. As such related security operations too
followed the trend, which is expected to be leaner, thinner and smarter. In
most scenario security features are implemented elaborately over all activity
components, nevertheless breaches occur in alarming frequency, more often than
not also due to human lapses. There are many instances of successful
cyber-attacks and subsequent system takeover by predator that led to
institutional and national fallout, raising question on the security system’s
efficacy. In the ensuing analysis on failure, generally attempts are made to
find out whether the catastrophe is due to failure of digital system or led by
inappropriate handling by ignorant users. Technical cause of digital system
failure can be detected, gauged, rectified and improved, however assessment of
failure resulted out of human system is not easy as it comprises of many
non-measurable abstract attributes. In the present text a window view on
existing technology, evolution of security & defense mechanism and
possibilities of human lapses are discussed to ascertain future course [4], [7], [8]. 2.
HUMAN
INTEGRATION WITH TECHNOLOGY
Evolution of technology, their standardization and convergence lead to
nomadic and ubiquitous computing as presumed by Mark Weiser at the beginning of
this century. He talked about ‘profound technologies’, which would be widely
used to get assimilated with our day-to-day life indistinguishably, in a way to
become indispensable part of larger social processes [15], [16]. ICT (Information and Communication Technology) is one
such technology that has become intimate part of our living processes. As
humanity is moving towards information society, riding on nomadic and
ubiquitous computing with ever mounting Computing and Communicating (C&C)
strength, internet access is growing exponentially. It is assumed by leading
scientists [14], [15] that internet is growing like any living entity from a
state of infancy to maturity to attain a state of collective intelligence,
which will be evolving continuously and available to all, evenly. Innumerable
devices with sensors for seeing, listening, recording and at times analyzing
abilities that people do carry during their daily activities are working as
sensory organs of internet to collect and analyze information from all form of
sources to amass knowledge that may lead to ultimate Wisdom. Internet in this process
has evolved from new born Web 1.0 (Static Web) to more maturing one like Web
2.0 (Dynamic and Interactive Web) and marching onwards possibly to Web 3.0 (or
Web Square!), to a state of collective intelligence. Now access to C&C
devices are not limited to selected elites, instead it got more democratized
and has come to doorstep of commoners. Growing types of devices and
connectivity options with defined standards and protocols are allowing inter
and intra device connectivity, switching client and server role as and when
scenario demands [12], [14]. This progressed further to many-to-many connectivity
environment, overlapping people and C&C devices from different origin.
Today’s INTERNET works on three tire architecture as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 The vast pool of information
with servers all across the world, possesses immense economic value in both
black and white market. Some seeks access to it for more analysis and value
addition even with some financial expenses. Others may not have any interest in
their present worth, financial or otherwise, they simply intend to Gatecrash
and look for onward selling scope for quick monetary gains. Security
arrangements are more important to throttle this kind of predators who look
around for unauthorized access to valued resources. Sometimes even casual web
surfers too cause unintended security breaches both at client and server
systems, that leads to major catastrophe. It may be noted here that all people
who come on board (internet), uses common tools with different intentions. This
raises a common concern for security amongst netizens. As a result, the scare,
‘Who is on other side of wire’, is growing, which calls for deeper attention on
insecurity from unknown sources. This brings in the necessity to discuss
digital security provisions in light of Authentication & Authorization,
Data Hiding and Safe information Transmission as listed below. 1)
Authentication and
Authorization 2)
Information Hiding (data
encryption) from predators and 3)
Safe information
transmission amongst genuine senders and receivers simply with message hashing
or with digital signature. This in turn brings in the necessity to deliberate on subject cryptography,
which traditionally and currently had been helping us to meet the indicated
requirement. 3.
AUTHENTICATION
AND AUTHORIZATION
The process of physical or digital security starts with authentication and
then authorization provided by the authenticating agency. It is quite in common
place that security guard in an establishment stops any individual seeking entry
and demands for identity establishment and then the authorizing entity allows
the stranger for certain activities/interactions with system. Apart from
resource protection and preservation, activities of Authentication and
Authorization is everywhere in place as a first layer of defense, from physical
to digital form of institutions all alike [13]. Large server clusters
world over are also regarded like institutions that houses specific services
and caters to various human needs similar to any other medical, technical,
academic and research organizations that exists physically. In fact, now
knowledge resources of most prestigious establishments are digitized and stored
on internal or external servers or cloud storage for general access and common
good. These resources need to be protected, with authentication and
authorization tool as first line of defense. Not all such resources are there
for free access, restrictions are applied on some information sets related to
economic, social, technical, industrial, scientific, medical, political,
defense etc. related affairs. Even, there are different price tags for
different sets of information to access. Authentication and Authorization
services comes into play with varied complexity in such instances to ensure
protection of information wealth in line with laid down norms. This is the
first hop when an intended user attempts to enter a resource center, physical
or digital. Access permission is granted when the user presents evidences on
identity and authenticity, based either on ‘Knowledge ‘or ‘Possession ‘or
‘Inherence’ or ‘Location’ or in combination of the stated factors, to gain
entree to resource base. In its simplest form at
first identification proof is requested then the visitor is asked for a
passphrase, which is not sharable. It may be mentioned here that pass phrase
that is generated out of user-controlled information as mentioned earlier, can
be multi layered. Depending on its layers we design single to multi factor
authentication scheme. The number of evidences
demanded can stretch from one to many, which can be termed as ‘Single Factor
(1FA)’, ‘Two Factor (2FA)’, ‘Three Factor (3FA)’ and so on, comprising of many
factors like ’Multi Factor (MFA)’ based authentication. In single factor, a user generally needs to
submit ‘user identification’ which is in his possession and ‘password’ which
user generates out of his knowledge. In two factor (2FA)
authentication system, two distinct form of identification of users are
required to gain access and proceed further in the process. The first factor generally is a password, which
essentially is in user’s possession and the second one commonly includes a text
with a code sent to user’s smartphone or biometrics using user’s face, retina
or fingerprint, ensuring users unique identification. Though not completely
full proof, 2FA improves security to a great extent. In order to improve
security further, more than two pieces of evidences may be demanded by a
system, which takes a user to Multi-factor authentication method, in which
a user is granted access to resources only after successfully
presenting all required pieces of evidence (or factors) to
an authentication mechanism. It may be noted that
these factors/evidences are not sharable. If shared, authenticating factors
gets compromised opening access for unlawful users, which may lead to a
catastrophe. After being authenticated and authorized for system access, user
may face encrypted resources, which may need further knowledge for decryption
and data verification with hash functions. This brings us to cryptographic
concepts which is touched in the following section [13, 20]. 4.
DATA
HIDING AND CRYPTOGRAPHY (CLASSICAL AND MODERN)
In the context of data hiding, the issues of cryptography, both in
classical and modern forms find a place for reference. Cryptography is a method of protecting information and communications
through the use of codes, so that only those for whom the information is
intended can read and process it. The prefix "crypt-" means
"hidden" or "vault" -- and the suffix "-graphy" stands for "writing." Historically (say, before the 1980s), it was considered broadly as a form of art and achieved
through process of substitution associated with secret codes, set of
information and instructions. Innumerable traditional cryptographic specimens/notes exist in social
and religious practices. In ancient manuscripts these existed at places like
center of pages, in margins or colophons, as acrostics, as solutions to
riddles, as glosses etc. It may also be in the language of the text or in the
reader's language if that is different or in scribal notes and at times as
examples in descriptive areas on practice and purpose of cryptography itself.
Many wealth centers had been discovered after cracking such notes. Since earlier years
‘replacement’ remained core technique in cryptography for information
protection and hiding and mostly military and intelligence establishments had
been major users of it. Gradually more mathematical algorithms got into play to
enhance security, as can be seen in role and functions of German Enigma
Machine, in secret message exchanges during world war II. Progressively
replacement processes made way for randomized methods and in the late 20th
century, the picture of cryptography changed radically with advanced
mathematical and statistical derivations. Steadily it evolved as an area of
both pure and applied science. Rich theories emerged enabling rigorous scientific
study of cryptography. The field presently incorporates much more than mere
secret communication. Now, it includes capabilities like message
authentication, digital signatures, protocols for exchanging secret keys,
authentication protocols, etc. with wide range of applicability, making it a
ubiquitous tool for data protection. Modern cryptography can
be said to be concerned with problems that may arise in any distributed
computation, which may come under internal or external attack. One may say it
is the scientific study of techniques for securing digital information,
transactions, and distributed computations. Over a period of time these
mechanisms are standardized and abstracted with encapsulation of procedural
complexities so that commoners can use them easily to remain safe. Digital
security mechanism that counts on cryptography, is an integral part of almost
any computer system now. Users (often unknowingly) rely on cryptography every
time they access a secured website. However, unabated and frequent
cyber-attacks with successful intrusion at times underlines inadequacy of
existing mechanism. [7], [8]. Cryptography is also
used to implement access control in multi-user operating systems, and to
prevent thieves/eves droppers from extracting inclement secrets from stolen
systems. Software protection methods employ encryption, authentication, and
other tools to prevent illicit copying. The list of benefits from cryptography
are many. However, Allan Turing, an English mathematician and computer
scientist observed that not all mathematical/statistical solution for a
real-life problem, even an excellent one, can be coded in a computer system.
This indicates limitations of present advanced randomized mathematical
cryptographic approaches. In following sections
attempt is made to elaborate more technical aspects of digital security
requirements like Authentication and Authorization, Network Communication,
Cryptography & Crypto Analysis etc. leading to an analysis to assess
whether or not human lapses defeat scientific approach! While Technical
protection generally appears to be complete, comprehensive
and up-to-date, human factors remains dubious issue. 5.
APPLICATION
OF MODERN CRYPTOGRAPHY PKI (PUBLIC KEY INFRA STRUCTURE)
A digital
signature is a mathematical scheme for verifying the authenticity of
digital messages or documents being send or received over internet. Digital
signatures are a standard element of most cryptographic protocol suites
and are commonly used for digitally exchanging documents that needs safety,
security and integrity. It employs both symmetric and asymmetric cryptography. In symmetric cryptography a single key
is used for cryptographic applications. In asymmetric cryptography a ‘KeyPair’,
consisting of mathematically related a ‘Private Key’ and a ‘Public Key’, plays
central role, doing most of designated operations like Data Signing, Data
Verification, Data Encryption and Data Decryption. It provides layers of validation and security
to messages sent and received over digital channel. It provides non-repudiation
feature too, where in the signers cannot successfully claim that they have not
sent the message [9]. To add further legitimacy
third party authentication is applied through Certifying Authorities (CA),
approved by designated CCA (Controller of Certifying Authorities). CA provides
Digital Signature Certificates (DSC) to Individuals, Computer Servers as
Individuals and to Institutions for various purposes under different
classifications [2], [18]. It is important to note that
in PKI environment, implementing asymmetric cryptography, where Public Key is
for sharing though Private Key is supposed to remain strictly private. If in
case Private Key gets exposed to one who is not real user/holder, the ‘KeyPair’ or Key is stated to be compromised and becomes
invalid for cryptographic applications. This may also lead to legal liability. A
valid digital signature, where the requisites are satisfied, establishes
authenticity of a message send to a receiver and provides assurance that
message received not tempered on transit. In this way it provides both
Authenticity, Integrity and non-repudiation.
Some non-repudiation schemes offer a time stamp for the digital signature, so
that even if the private key is exposed, the signature remains valid. 6.
SECURED
DATA TRANSMISSION OVER INTERNET
Present days ICT
(Information and Communication Technology) applications run on three tire
architecture as shown in Fig-2, where client request is forwarded to
data/information server and desired response received from it through a
Web/Application Server following HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer) Protocol. Technology dependent authentication and
authorization process are applied to ensure security at different layers,
starting with Client, Business Logic and Database Tire. Figure 2 A secured hypertext
transfer protocol; HTTPS is security induced protocol involving PKI (Public Key
Infrastructure) standards, where in ‘DSC’ is installed on web servers to
provide server identification so that the clients accessing them be assured
that they are accessing the desired server. In this archetype data/information
is send and received in encrypted form. HTTPS is achieved through SSL (Secured
Socket Layer) or more advanced TLS (Transport Layer Security) protocol. Web
site addresses adhering to this protocol precedes with a lock icon, as shown
below in figure 3 – Figure 3 A click on the icon
provides necessary page information, which includes details of digital
certificate, its validity, certificate issuer (the CA), subject (certificate
receiver), public key, signature algorithm hashing algorithm etc. It
authenticates server with which client system attempts to establishes
connection and ensures safe message exchange (in signed and encrypted form)
with it. Present days computing is generally executed over internet where in
PKI ensures safety and security. Thus, requirement for
data/information/knowledge safety and security and protected message exchange
took us from artistic replacement approach followed in classical or medieval
cryptography to modern cryptography based on randomized procedure evolved out
of mathematical/statistical algorithms. At the center of present procedure is
Cryptographic Key (Symmetric or Asymmetric), which makes the cyphering system
quite robust [11],[14]. It may be noted that,
despite all standards and specifications followed by PKI processes, Certifying
Authorities (CA), the identity and security providers don’t always work in
unison. Digital Signature Certificate (DSC) provided by one CA may or may not
be recognized by others, giving a feeling of insecurity amongst PKI users and
security seekers. 7.
CRYPTOANALYSIS
The process to study and
explore the ways to break the crypto system is known as Cryptanalysis. The word Cryptoanalysis is made out of
Greek word ‘kryptós’, "hidden",
and ‘analýein’, "to loosen" or
"to untie". It is the study and analyzing of an information system to
explore hidden aspects in it. In present order
to break the cypher system a predator/eves dropper primarily need to have
access of the key, which is at the core of entire process. The cryptographic
key allows one to completely break into the system and have a comprehensive
view. Alternatively, various guess works
comes into play, which can be resource and time driven. Cryptoanalysis methods are used to crack the cryptographic
security system and gain access to encrypted message even if cryptographic key
is unknown. However, this activity will also need
computational resource in following terms ·
Data – about plain and cypher text to ascertain requisite
approach, ·
Memory – to compute for deciphering the cyphering the system, ·
Time - to execute requisite steps (test encryption) to be
performed, The process is complex as it needs knowledge of many factors like internal
information, key-length, key-algorithm, encryption algorithm, signing algorithm
etc. These apart given some ciphertext/encrypted data the goal
of a cryptanalyst is to gain as much information as possible about the
original plaintext/unencrypted data. Attack types also can be classified
depending on information available with attacker. Cryptoanalysis evolved with
cryptography. The contest amidst cryptography and cryptoanalysis can be traced
in the history of cryptography. New cyphering techniques are evolved
continuously to replace old ones to make system more robust, so also new
cryptanalytic techniques developed to break new schemes. They are viewed as two
sides of same coin [2], [11], [21]. 8.
HUMAN ROLE
It is not crypto analysis always that enables
a predator to break a cryptographic scheme alone, improper handling of secrets,
insincerity or lack of user awareness exposes cryptographic secrets. Apart from
technical, human factor plays great role in maintaining or breaking
cryptographic system. Episode involving Edward Snowden who illegally used
co-worker’s security details to access high security server data and made the same
public, points to this fact substantially. Frequent warnings in all
forms of media, both print or digital, to stay away from unlawful websites,
unsolicited telephone calls and email/messages from unknown sources, generally
goes in vain. Often circulated advisories not to share OTP, PIN, passwords,
personal information etc. with strangers also gets less than desired attention.
These are attempts by predators to break into the system and steal resources.
End users need to be cautious as a single security mistake may lead to a
disaster that no technology can defend. Apart from individual affect, attempt
for security breach can be institutionalized by a group or even by a country.
Such attempts can endanger industry, infrastructure, economy and even national security.
As such care is needed while seeking external assistance and engaging exterior
contractors. In these perspectives human factors like awareness, alertness,
resolve with sincerity to system matters a lot to make digital security
successful. 9.
ANALYSIS
OF FACTS
Leading computer system
manufacturer DELL has conducted a survey to assess how in an institution
employee keep up with security policy of the institution while sharing files
and documents with external agencies during business. It has found that around
41% employees likely to bypass institution’s security policy and 57% finds that
this is the best way get the job done fast. 43% Employees send work related
email from their personal account. Around 71% of employees share files with
third parties, from outside the institution. Obviously, role of technologies is
minimal in such environment and system opens up to attackers. In its study report a
California bases private company ‘Netwrix’, which develops change management software to help institution with
compliance and auditing, found in 2020 pandemic situation vulnerability
increased by 60 % when work from home become new normal for all ICT institution
and 63 % increase in cyber-attack. 58% institutions have observed that
employees working from remote are not adhering to institutional norms of
cybersecurity. This may occur out of ignorance bordering to negligence too.
Organizations are also concerned about vulnerability arising out of VPN
exploitation, cloud misconfiguration and most interestingly about data theft by
their own employees [5]. It is evident that
possibilities for successful attacks are many thus a broad perspective is
necessary which may lead to a measure that may reflect on digital security
issues. In this context three measures available in public domain are
considered for further deliberation, are as follows- 1)
National Cyber Security
Index (NCSI) 2)
Digital Development
Index (DDL) 3)
Human Development Index
(HDI) To take the discussion further these parameters need an introduction at
this juncture. To begin with let us talk about cyber security data of
countries, available as National Cyber Security Index (NCSI), which is evolved
and sustained by e-Governance Academy Foundation. NCSI is a global index, known
as a measure to indicate preparedness of countries to prevent cyber threat. The
data held by NCSI is publicly available and is a tool for cyber security
capacity building endeavor. NCSI also presents Digital Development Level (DDL)
and difference between these two indices. A positive difference between NCSI
and DDL indicates Cyber Security Preparedness is more than Digital Development
level. A negative difference indicates the digital development level is not completely
exploited for Cyber Security Preparedness [25]. From the same site, latest data of top twenty NCSI
scoring nations are considered along with their Digital Development Level
(DDL)for further insight into the relation between ‘National Cyber Security’
and ‘Digital Development’. This apart, top twenty NCSI scoring nations data
were compared with related countries latest Human Development Indices (HDI),
prepared by United Nations under United Nations Development Program (UNDP) to
explore how human factor affects cyber security, in keeping with the essence of
present text[24],[25]. The result of the study is tabled below, Table 1
10. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Looking at the result derived out of the data
considered for analysis following observation can be made, 1)
NCSI (National Cyber Security Index) of top
twenty countries observed to have Statistical Mean close to median and mode
value and low standard deviation and coefficient of variation, which may
indicate that top twenty NCSI indexed countries follow a very uniform cyber
security protocol. 2)
Result derived out of DDL (Digital
Development Level Index), of top twenty NCSI indexed countries also shows
healthy central tendency with low level of data dispersion, which may be due to
their almost equivalent level of Digital Development Environment. 3)
HDI (Human Development
Index), prepared by United Nation Development Program (UNDP), in the year 2019
of top 20 NCSI countries observed to have strong central tendency and low
measures of dispersion, indicating almost equivalent level of human development
processes as reflected collectively by measures like life expectancy, mean and
expected years of schooling, gross national income etc. 4)
Positive Correlation has
been observed between DDL and NCSI and strong Correlation has been observed DDL
and HDI. The observations above
in general and at no ‘4’ in particular, indicates
importance of human development in terms of education, physical and financial
health to ensure digital security. The discussions above strongly
underline role of humans in the process of ensuring digital security. As stated
generally it is the man behind the machine that matters most. Many digital
disasters originate from acts of human ignorance, obliviousness, violence of
norms, conscious avoidance of standard operational procedures etc. which fails
scientific fortification of resources. This calls for elevation of human
quality with literacy, health, availability of resources and conscious access
and utilization of digital resources 11. RECOMMENDATIONS
Human Development with education, health and
financial upliftment improves understanding of ICT (Information and
Communication Technology) and its use for community progression, which likely
to ensure more secure digital environment. SOURCES OF FUNDING
This research received no specific grant from
any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author have
declared that no competing interests exist. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I acknowledge numerous ICT researchers and philosophers who immensely
contributed to the subject and integrated other areas of studies that made
conceptualization of this text possible. REFERENCES
[1] Angsuman Das, Avishek Adhikari, On
Constructions and Security Notions of Public-key Cryptosystems; Book Chapter,
Contemporary Topics in Mathematics and Statistics with Applications, Volume-I,
Asian Books Pvt Ltd., 2012; academia.edu/2904162
[2]
B. Preneel et al, New Trends in Cryptology,
Document Reference ENS-D4-1.1, Version 1.1, February 21, 2003 [3] Benjamin
A. Saltzman Early Medieval Cryptography, Textual Errors, and Scribal Agency;
SPECULUM; A journal of Medieval Studies
[4]
Cortada J. W, Gupta A.M. Le Noir Marc; How Nations thrive in the
Information Age, IBM Institute for Business Value, IBM Global Business
Services,
[5]
Cyber Threats Report, Netwrix; 2020; [6] DELL,
“Evolving Security to Accommodate the Modern Worker” Statistics based on a
study conducted by Forrester Consulting commissioned by Dell, ",” October
2017.
[7]
Dutta Avijit, Digital Security: An Enigma,
Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018, M. U. Bokhari
et al. (eds.), Cyber Security, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
729, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8536-9_25.
[8]
Dutta Avijit; Digital Security: A Moving Target,
International Journal of Electrical Electronics & Computer Science
Engineering Special Issue - TeLMISR 2015, ISSN, ISSN:
2348-2273,
[9]
Jonathan Katz and Yehuda Lindell;
Introduction to Modern Cryptography; Book; 2007 [10]
Karlene C.Cousinsa,
DanielRobeyb; Human agency in a wireless world:
Patterns of technology use in nomadic computing environments; Information and Organization; Volume 15,
Issue 2, April 2005, Pages 151-180 [11] Matthew
K. Franklin, Lucas Chi Kwong
Hui, Duncan S.Wong (Eds.), Cryptology and Network
Security, 7th International Conference, CANS 2008, Hong-Kong, China, December
2-4, 2008, Proceedings [12] Ruth
M Davis, Evolution of Computers and Computing, Science Vol. 195; Science 18 Mar
1977: Vol. 195, Issue 4283, pp. 1096-1102;
DOI: 10.1126/science.195.4283.1096 [13] The
Role of Access Control in Information Security - Hashed Out by The SSL Store;
11/14/2020 [14] Tim
O’Reilly and John Battelle; Web Squared: Web 2.0 Five Years On; Special Report [17]
https://notes.shichao.io/cnspp/ch2/#encryption-requirements [18] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature [19]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_key_infrastructure [20]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-factor_authentication [21] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysis [22]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack
[23]
https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/cryptography/ciphers/a/shift-cipher
This work is licensed under a: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License © Granthaalayah 2014-2020. All Rights Reserved. |