Article Type: Research Article Article Citation: Bizu Kinfe Zekiros. (2020). THE INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES OF SECONDARY
SCHOOL TEACHERS IN ETHIOPIA: HULET EJU ENESIE WOREDA. International Journal of
Research -GRANTHAALAYAH, 8(11), 53-62. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v8.i11.2020.1682 Received Date: 20 September 2020 Accepted Date: 25 November 2020 Keywords: Instructional Design Instructional Practices Instruction Model This study was examined secondary school teachers’ instructional practices by using First Principle of Instruction model as guiding principle. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed. The total populations of the study were 52. From these 40 Biology teachers, 4 directors, 4 supervisors and 4 department heads were selected through comprehensive sampling technique. Data were obtained through questionnaire, interview, classroom observation and document analysis. Various statistical tools such as mean, frequency and percentage were applied to analyze the data. The finding indicated that secondary school Biology teachers design their lessons by using First Principle of Instruction Model and they practiced it partially. And biology teacher’s instructional practices are aligned partially with First Principle of Instructional Model. Some factors that affect the design and implementation of the lessons based on the First Principle of Instruction model were identified: teachers’ related problems, students related problems, time constraints, policy issues, and resources. Based on the finding, it is recommended that woreda education office and general secondary schools should have to prepare short- and long-term training, seminars and workshop for teachers. Secondary school directors and supervisors should help teachers to have personal, professional knowledge and pedagogical skill. They should also support them by creating good educational environment.
1. INTRODUCTION1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
To be effective in
an educational system, a clear instruction that is directly related to the
socio- economic realities of a given country need to be devised. Instruction can be defined as a plan for
teaching and learning activities in which learning is systematically organized
(Smith & Ragan, 2005). In designing effective learning environment, the
principle of instruction includes teacher’s behavior in designing instruction,
grouping practice and effective delivery. Teachers’ behaviors are related to
teachers’ action with beginning a lesson, presenting information, guiding
student practice after instruction, correcting students’ work and providing
feedback, planning students’ work. Teachers’ perception plays an influential
role in determining their professional behavior. The way they plan their
lesson, the kind of decision they make and the way they apply different
instruction in their classroom. Those instructional models promote
instructional design principles that are based on the notion that the teachers
must create learning environments in which students articulate, define and
modify their ideas (Daggett, 2011). Effective instructional design can support
students’ achievement by engaging them as active and independent learners,
stimulates students’ domain specific content knowledge (Tiruneh
et. al., .2015). Moreover, various studies have shown that designing effective
lesson promotes collaborative learning (Kali, 2009), increase student
motivation to teach (Gardner, 2011), develop metacognitive skill (Melesse, 2015) and facilitate the transfer of acquired
knowledge to solve authentic tasks (Merrill, 2002). Student learn best
when instruction is appropriately challenging, based on real world problem
purposeful and interesting (Merrill, 2009). This implies that teachers should
design effective learning environment that may enhance students’ subject-matter
and daily life knowledge. In this case, effective learning environment is the
process of creating opportunities for facilitating or increasing students
learning. There are different
models of instructional design. E.g ASSURE Model,Gagne’s Model, Keller’s ARCS Model, Dick and Carey
Model, ADDLE Model, Merrill’s First
Principle of Instruction Model. From these models the researcher selects
Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction Model. Because this model is more
focused on authentic tasks or problems of students in their real life and M
David Merrill (2002) provide a coherent comprehensive over view of
instructional design principle for an eclectic perspective, incorporating
behaviorists, cognitivists and constructivists Moreover, many new instructional
theories advocate that centering instruction around a set of authentic tasks
helps to improve application and transfer of knowledge and helps students to
take more responsibilities for their own learning (Francom
et, al, 2009; Merrill, 2006 2007). Therefore, it is important to design
instruction with task related issues so that students can have both subject
matter and everyday life knowledge. 2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMDifferent countries
in the world acknowledge that the quality of secondary school education is
pillar for national development. That means improving the quality of secondary
school education is considered as key elements for the growth of
education. To ensure and offer quality
education for secondary schools, teachers should plan and implement different
instructional strategies. It is the teachers’ knowledge, competence and ability
of planning their instruction effectively could bring the best from the learner
in terms of academic achievements (Micheal et al, 2012). Similarly, to achieve modern aims of education,
it’s very much important to focus more attention on the training of teachers to
acquire knowledge and skill in instructional design related principle of the
effective instruction and also it is very important to expose learner to the
effective principle of instruction. In most Ethiopian
secondary schools, teachers’ instructional practices are focused on
lecture-based instruction in which a teacher provides information to students
verbally in the classroom and includes a few or no additional learning
activities (Melesse, 2015). But it is important that
allowing students’ sufficient time to engage in the progression of task in
subject matter area will enable learner to apply and solve problem in their
real world (Francom et. al., 2009). Ethiopian
secondary school teachers have many problems during designing lesson plan which
Lack of adequate support, lack of interest, commitment and motivation to their
profession, attitudinal problems (Melesse, 2015). Research on
teachers’ instructional practice revealed that teachers plan their lesson with
content and learning activities as opposed to the rational model of planning.
The teachers’ approach to lesson planning reflects their own perception (Simegn, 2012). Survey research was
conducted by Simegn (2012), in secondary school
teachers’ pedagogical believes and instructional practice. This study revealed
that teachers seem to have unrealistic interest and competence to their
teaching profession and they did not seem to have a clear idea about the focus
of instruction. Since effective instructional practice can contribute and help
towards the improvement of students’ performance, it would be beneficial to
study how teachers’ design and implement their instruction effectively. Because
most teachers have limited knowledge, attitude and experience in designing
their lesson systematically. The main purpose of this study is therefore to
examine the extent to which secondary school biology teachers design and
implement their lessons. Biology course was selected because science education
is limited in Ethiopia generally and students perform poorly in various science
subjects including biology (Daba & Anbesaw, 2016). Therefore, the following research questions
were posed by the researcher. 3. RESEARCH QUESTIONSHow do secondary
school biology teachers design and implement their lessons in HuletEjuEnesieWoreda?To what extent do the instructional
practices of secondary school biology teachers align with the First Principles
of Instruction model in HuletEjuEnesieWoreda?What are
the major challenges of secondary school biology teachers of design instruction
that implement the First Principle of Instruction Model in HuletEjuEnesieWoreda? 4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYThe general
objective of this study was to examine the design and implementation of
secondary school biology lessons in line with the First principles of instructional
model and find out the possible reasons that affect the alignment.
Specifically, the study intends to: 1)
To know
secondary school biology teachers’ design and implement their lessons in HuletEjuEnesieWoreda 2)
To
examine the instructional practices of secondary school biology teachers’,
align with the First Principles of Instruction model in HuletEjuEnesieWoreda. 3)
To
identify the major challenges of secondary school biology teachers of design
instruction those implement the First Principle of Instruction Model in HuletEjuEnesieWoreda. 5. RESEARCH METHODSFor this study,
descriptive survey and both qualitative and quantitative research method design
were employed. Descriptive survey design is a scientific method which involves
observing and describing the behavior of the subjects without influencing it in
any ways (Creswell, 2012). And it is
also appropriate and more effective to investigate the current instructional
practices of teachers. It provides a better understanding of the targeted
research problem. Mixed method design is one in which both qualitative and
quantitate method are used to answer the research question in single study. 6. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUESIn HuletEjuEnesieworeda, there are four government general
secondary schools. In those schools, there are 40 biology teachers. The samples
(biology teachers) are selected by comprehensive sampling technique.
Accordingly, all biology teachers (N = 40) were participated in this study. In
addition, four directors, four supervisors and four department heads were
selected through comprehensive sampling technique for additional information
about teachers’ instructional practices and how the school support teachers to
design effective instruction in the actual classrooms. Therefore, the total
sample size is 52. 7. DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTSQuestionnaire,
interview, classroom observation and document analysis were employed to collect
the data. Questionnaire: To obtain the required information, closed
and open-ended type of questionnaires were prepared. They were adapted from
Merrill (2006) and modified. Questions
were structured with three points of rating scales. These rating scales range
from Always, Sometimes and Never, respectively. The final questionnaire has two
sections. The first section was intended to collect background information
about the participants, and the second part helps to assess information
regarding respondents’ whole instructional practice. Interview: Interview items were constructed based on the proposed model that is
first principle of instruction model. The interview was conducted with the
directors, supervisors and department heads. The main goals of the interview
were to get additional information about teacher’s instructional practices and
how the school support teachers to design effective instruction in the actual
classroom. Observation: Classroom observation was another instrument
for collecting relevant data. The main goal of this instrument is to see
teachers’ practices of instruction in the actual classroom. Based on the
proposed instruction model which means ‘First Principle of Instruction Models’,
classroom observation checklist was prepared and the researcher observed four
different teachers three times in each classroom from each school. That means
4*3*4=48 session was observed. Document analysis: Teacher’s lesson plans were another
instrument to collect the data. The main goal of this instrument was to cross
check the actual classroom practices. Two lesson plans would be used. The
researcher used only two lesson plans because, all most all teachers lesson
plan was the same. 8. METHOD OF DATA ANALYSISFor the realization
and successful accomplishment of the study, the collected data were recorded,
edited, organized, discussed, analyzed, presented and interpreted in relation
to research questions. These have been done both quantitatively and
qualitatively by using descriptive statistical tools such as tables,
percentages, mean, and Pearson correlation and for data collected through
questionnaires and class room observation whereas words were used for data
collected through interview and open-ended questions. In addition, the
qualitative data was analyzed by transcribing respondent ‘s idea and views
through narrations, descriptions, and discussions of different aspects of the
study that could not be done through the quantitative method. 9. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION9.1. DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF LESSONSThe mean score of
using First Principle of Instruction Model across twelve questions with 40
secondary school teachers. The total mean is 2.80. Beginning the chapter by
asking questions, designing lesson based on different problems, selecting
appropriate instructional media, giving several opportunities to apply the
newly acquired knowledge in the existing or actual problems and discussing in
small groups with peers mean result is below the average mean, Teacher
encouraged students to recall, to relate, to describe and to apply knowledge.
Teachers demonstrated to students through examples. Teaches coached students’
activities while they are working in small groups provided adequate feedback
for students when they asked questions and encouraged students to explain in
detail on their answers mean score is above the average mean. Teachers asked
questions to help students to make meaningful connection between the newly
present information to their prior knowledge and teachers gave adequate
opportunities for students to reflect and discuss on solution to specific
questions mean result is nearly equal to the average mean. Most of the First
Instruction Principles were practiced and used as tools for designing lessons.
Therefor secondary school teachers design their lessons by using First
Principle of Instruction Model and they practiced it effectively. However, data
from open ended questions revealed that almost all of the respondents stated
that most of them design their lesson plan based on the format which was
prepared and given from the Amhara national regional state education bureau.
Each and every teacher was used this format. The lesson plan format includes
some principle from the First Principle of Instructional Model. The interview
data replies that few teachers try to design and implement their lesson plan
effectively but many of the teachers prepare lesson plan but not implement in
their classroom. However, majority of the respondents or all most 8-10
participant states that teachers were prepare lesson plan based on the format,
but they were not practiced in actual classroom effectively. The alignment of
First principle Instruction Model with Teachers Instructional Practices 9.2. DATA FROM CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONSClassrooms
Observations
The above Table, the
showed the observation checklist which consists five major principles. Each of
them has four sub principles. The checklist was prepared based on Merrill’s
First Principles of Instruction Model. Four different biology teachers were
observed three times based on this principle. The principles are: 1)
Problems/task
centeredness. The mean score result indicated that teachers did not present
information of content in real world, teachers did not identify learner’s
ability to solve problem after taking the lesson, learners did not take action
at the level, and teachers didn’t involve on the progression of the problems.
Since the mean result of these principle is below average mean task
centeredness principle was not practiced by secondary school teachers. 2)
In the
activation principle the mean result showed that this principle is practiced.
That is teachers encouraged students to relate prior experience by asking
questions. Teachers directed learners to recall, to describe and to apply
knowledge from past experience. Teachers provided relevant experience that
could be used as foundation base for new knowledge, and teachers helped
learners to form appropriate structure for organizing the new knowledge by
asking questions. The mean score of this principle was above average mean. 3)
The
third principle was demonstration. Teacher demonstrated leaner’s what was to be
learned through different examples. Teacher showed examples which were
consisted with content to be learned. Teachers used learner’s guiding technique
to follow up. Teachers provided appropriate instructional media to the content
and objective used to enhance learning. The mean of this principle is still
above the average mean. 4)
Application
principle. The mean score of this principle is approximately equal to the
average mean. The observation result showed that learners had the opportunity
to practice and apply the newly acquired knowledge and skill. Leaners sometimes
practiced with the stated objective. The teacher provided learners to use new
knowledge and skill to solve various problems related to their real life.
Learner received corrective feedback and proper coaching. Since the result was
equal to the average, this principle practiced sometimes. 5)
The last
principle was integration. The observation result indicated that teachers did not
provide techniques that encourage learners to integrate the newly knowledge and
skill into their everyday life. The teacher didn’t provide an opportunity to
learners to publically demonstrate their new
knowledge and skill. Teachers did not provide an opportunity to learners to
discuss and defended their new knowledge and skill. The teachers did not
provide an opportunity for learners to create, invent and explore new knowledge
and skill. The mean score of these principles showed that teachers didn’t practice.
Since the means score was below the average. The observation
checklist result indicated that from the Five First Principle of Instruction
Model, activation, demonstration and application principles, most of them were
practiced by the teachers. The remaining two principles: problem centeredness
and integration principles were not practiced. Even from the Five First
Principle of Instruction only three of them were practiced, the average mean
showed that First Principles of Instruction Model align with teachers’
instructional practices. Besides these, at
the time of observation teacher’s ‘C’ who earn his degree in Bachelor of
education and teacher ‘B’ who is Bachelor of science with PGDT practiced First
Principles of instruction Model better than teacher ‘A’ and ‘D’ who are
Bachelor of science without PGDT. Regarding teaching experience, teacher ‘B’ is
less experienced than teacher ‘C’. It was observed that teacher ‘C’ was a
better practioner of the model. Generally, the
observation result revealed that teachers’ years of experience and using first
principle of instructional model are directly proportional. When teachers’
experience increases, first principles of instructional model also increase. In
the words when the year of experience decreases, using first principles of
instructional model also decreases. It was observed that
teachers who are graduated at regular program frequently used first principle
of instructional model when they taught. Summer graduated teachers also used
first principle of instructional model. But they used it less frequently than
the regular graduated teachers. The observation result showed that distance
graduated teachers practiced first principle of instructional model. However,
they practiced it below the regular and summer graduated teachers. 9.3. CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION MODELIn addition to
questionnaires and classroom observations, interview was conducted with school
directors’ supervisors and department heads to know the major challenges of
teachers in implementing the First Principles of Instruction. Data from
interview revealed that, several problems were identified: The majors’ problems
were grouped under three themes: These were teacher related, student related
and resource related. Teachers Related
Problems The interview
results also showed that most PGDT teachers are not interested in their
profession and they entered to this profession because of lack of money for
surviving their life. These teachers lack pedagogical training, have
attitudinal problems (understand teaching as simple work), didn’t design and
implement their lessons effectively. Teachers lack of motivation, interest and
commitment. They have low understanding about lesson plan. They feel lesson
plan as no value. They lack of awareness about First Principle of Instructional
Model. Therefore, these all problems have their own factors teachers’
instructional practice. Teachers were
carless enough that they were not committed, not motivated and not interested
to design and to implement their lessons effectively. Lack of Training: for
both teachers and school administrative about how an instruction is design and
implement systematically. From the interview results to solve the above
problems, the school support teachers to design and practice lesson plan by
giving moral and emotional support, by giving strong, positive commitments and
suggestion, tried to allocate budget for materials and resource, support
service gained through long- and short-term training about how teachers design
their lessons effectively. However, the schools
support PGDT teachers by providing good opportunities to share some experience
from more experienced teachers. These experienced teachers support them by
giving personal and professional knowledge and skill. But some data replied
that most of the time teachers were coming in the school with above five years
of experience so need of support to these teachers. Students Related
Problems Students have
different background: these mean that there are many students who have
different educational background since they come from different places and
environment. These students have their own perspective and experience. Therefor
to accommodate this different background most teachers lack some kinds of skill
and ability. Some students
disturb in the classroom others didnot participate;
still others didnot work their tasks effectively.
Even other students have a problem of drug addicted and smoking cigarette which
may affect the teaching learning processes generally and teachers’
instructional practices particularly. Low motivation: most of the time students have low
motivation to learn because of many reasons. Like teachers lack of knowledge
and skill, students studying habit, teaching methodology, feeling of pessimistic
and so on. this all may affect the instructional practices of teachers. High numbers of
students in the class: the number of the student and the class room size are
also another factor of which affects the design and implementation of instruction.
Classroom students should be manageable unless the instruction is not delivered
effectively. Language
Barriers: this mean there is
medium of instruction that English language. Most of the students have a
problem of understanding concepts and ides through this language. There for
there is a problem of communication. How the instructional design will be
employed. This is the main reason to fail teacher’s instructional practices. In addition, data
from open ended question showed that, majority of the respondents stated the
following problems which affect their design and practice of lesson plan using
First Principle of Instruction Model. Lack of resource
and materials To have effective
instructional practice in one school in general and in the classroom in
particular, there should be adequate materials, teaching aids, instructional
technology and rich resource. School environment: classrooms were very old and
not attractive; chairs and desks are limited in numbers. These problems affect
teachers’ instructional practices. Absence of
instructional media, teaching aids, chalks and interactive black board.
Therefore, without adequate materials teacher’s instructional practice is not
effective Shortage of Time Most of teachers use their time to finish
course and teachers spent their time by doing different activities. Like
extra-curricular activities, CPD program, giving tutorial. The Curriculum
Itself Text books are very
large and wide and they are not comfortable and interesting to practice.
Contents and topics are very wide; for example, tasks and activities are not
matched with real world problems. Because of this reason teachers didnot practice their instruction effectively rather they
want to finish the course. 10. DISCUSSIONSThe First Principle
of Instruction Model has been partially practiced by graduated secondary school
teachers. The result revealed that regulars graduated teachers frequently used
these principles. In comparison with regulars graduated teacher, summer and
distance graduated teachers also practiced the First Principle of Instruction
Model. But it is not frequency used. However, summer graduated teachers used
more frequently than distance grated teachers. Research studies indicated that
learning face to face and taking more time for learning give the opportunities
to learn and practice more. Secondary school teachers in Ethiopia had
traditionally trained at university in four-year degree program which combined
educational coursework and practicum experience with academic course in various
discipline. However, recently the selection criteria and training strategies of
secondary school teachers are changed (Adugna, 2012).
That is the training is changed from the integrated four year of educational
bachelor of degree to three-year degree course in majority of felids plus
additional year of professional teachers training to obtain post graduate
diploma in teaching (PGDT). The one-year professional educational program
consists of training in educational foundation and pedagogy. But most of
secondary school teachers are not effective in their teaching especially in
designing their lesson plan using First Principle of Instruction Model. For teaching,
teachers who are graduated in bachelors of Science and bachelors of education,
there are a significant different in using First Principle of Instruction
Model. Bachelor of education graduated teachers had used this model frequently
as compared with Bachelor of Science graduates. Bachelor of Science graduates
who took PGDT and who didn’t take PGDT had different frequency in designing and
practicing the First Principle of Instruction Model. As it is compared to teacher who took PGDT
training and who didn’t take training, PGDT holders were practicing the model
more than that they didn’t take the training. It is understood that PGDT is
valuable to practice the instructional model. 10.1. FIRST PRINCIPLE OF INSTRUCTION MODEL AND THE ACTUAL PRACTICESThe finding
indicated that most of the First Principles of Instruction Model were practiced
by secondary school teachers. It was observed that majority of the principles
were practiced. Besides this, a minimum one of the five elements in the
principle was practiced by the teachers.
Beginning the chapter by asking questions, designing lesson based on
different problems, selecting appropriate instructional media, giving several
opportunities of apply the newly acquired knowledge in the actual problems and
discussing in small groups with their peers’ mean is below the average mean. It
is clear that the problem centered principles have been practiced rarely as
compared with other principles. However (Francom,
2014; Merrill, 2007) proposed that this task-based principle provide specific
demonstration of particular task. Similar to that, the learner will be
confronted in real life setting. Other principles such as, teachers asked
questions to make students integrate in meaningful connection between the newly
presented information to their background knowledge and teacher gave adequate
to opportunity for students to reflect and disuses on solution to the specific
questions mean is nearly equal to the average mean. From the finding it is
explained that teachers encouraged student to recall, relate, describe, apply
and explain the acquired knowledge, they demonstrated to students by using
example, teacher coached students’ activities while working in small groups and
provided adequate feedbacks for students’ questions mean score is above the
average mean. It is understood that demonstration principles were widely
practiced by secondary school teachers. Supporting this idea (Merrill, 2002)
proposed that demonstration principle is the most important dimensions for
successful learning. 11. CONCLUSIONSBased on the
findings, it is concluded that even though there are many different models of
+designing instruction were existed, first principle of instruction model is
the one which aligned with secondary school teachers’ instructional practices.
Secondary school teachers’ lesson plan has some elements of First Principle of
Instruction Model. However, some findings indicated that teachers didn’t
practice their instruction effectively (Simegn,
2012). The reason was because of many problems like teachers lack of
commitment, motivation and interest, teacher low understanding about First
Principle of Instruction Model, students’ unnecessary behavior, Teachers lack
short- and long-term training, shortage of time, resource material and the
government did not avail conducive environment to support teachers to design
effective environment. Similarly, another study also states that Ethiopian
secondary school teachers have many problems during designing lesson plan which
Lack of adequate support, lack of interest, commitment and motivation to their
profession, attitudinal problems (Melesse,
2015). 12. RECOMMENDATIONSBased on the
findings of the study, the following recommendations have been forwarded. Wereda education office and general secondary school
directors and supervisors should prepare or offer short- and long-term
training, seminars and workshop for teachers to increase their effectives in
their instructional practices. Wereda education
office and general secondary school directors and supervisors should have
considered offering adequate instructional media and materials resource for
teachers so as to improve and increase their instructional practices
effectively. Secondary school directors and supervisors should help teachers to
have both personal and professional knowledge and skill. They should also
support them by creating good educational environment. Secondary school
directors, supervisors and department heads should facilitate supervision
programs to check whether teachers design and implement their instruction
effectively and to give constructive comments and suggestions on their
weakness. Teachers and schools should be given the right to develop their own
format to prepare their lesson with sufficient information. Wereda
education bureau and supervisor should have a system to be designed in which
teachers with neighboring schools have talks and discusses on such issues. SOURCES OF FUNDINGThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. CONFLICT OF INTERESTThe author have declared that no competing interests exist. ACKNOWLEDGMENTNone. REFERENCES
[1]
Creswell,
J. W. (2012) Educational Research. Planning Conducting and Evaluating Research
(4th) Boston Pearson education Inc.
[2]
Daba, T.& Anbesaw, M. (2016). Factor Affecting the Implementation of
Practice activities in science Education in some selected secondary and
preparatory school of Afar Region. International Journal of Environmental a d
Science Education.11 (12).
[3]
Daggett,
W.R, (2011). The Daggett System for Instruction. International Center for
Leader Ship in Education.
[4]
Francom, G. &
Gardner, J. (2014) what is Task-Centered Learning. Tech Trends 58(5)
[5]
Francom, G.,
Bybee, D., Woltersberger, M., Merrill, D. (2009)
Biology 100: Task Centered, Peer Interactive Redesign. Tech Trends 53(3) 85-100
[6]
Gardner,
J. (2011) Teaching the Efficiency of Merrill’s First Principle of Instruction
in improving understandably in introductory undergraduate Biology course.
Unpublished doctoral dissertations.
[7]
Kali,
Y., Levin-Peled, R., Dor,
Y.J. (2009). The Role of Design Principle in Design Cause That Promote
Collaborative Learning in Higher Education. International Journal of Computer
in Human Behavior. Elsevier.
[8]
Melesse, T.
(2015). The Utilization of Instructional Process in Higher Education
Institutions of the Amhara Region Ethiopia.
Science Technology and Art Research journal 4(4), 182-193.
[9]
Merrill,.
M.D. (2009) Finding (effective, efficient and engaging) Instruction Educational
Technology, 49(3) 15-26Technology in Education 40(1) 5-22
[10] Merrill, M. D. (2007) A task centered
instructional strategies. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 40(1)
5-22
[11] Merrill, M.D, (2002). First Principles of
Instruction. Educational Technology Research & Development 50(3).
[12] Merrill, M.D. (2006). First Principles of
Instruction Analysis. Trends and issue in instructional design and technology
2nd prentice Hall. Inc
[13] Micheal, F. Salman, M. Ayinla,
O. (2012) Effects of Teachers Instructional Strategies Pattern on Senior
Secondary School students Performance Mathematics Word Problems. Journal of
Education and Practice.
[14] Simegn, B. (2012) A study of secondary school EEL
teachers pedagogical Beliefs and class Room Practice. Unpublished Doctoral
Dissertation Addis Ababa University.
[15] Smith, p. L & Ragan. T.J (2005)
Instructional Design (3rd) Hoboken, N J: Wiley
[16] Tiruneh, D.T. Weldeslassie,
A.G. Kassa, A. Tefera, Z. Decock,
M. Elen J, (2015). Systematic Design of Learning
Environment for Domain Specific & Domain General Critical Thinking Skill.
Educational Technology and Research Development.
This work is licensed under a: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License © Granthaalayah 2014-2020. All Rights Reserved. |