Article Type: Research Article Article Citation: Shettima Bukar, Mohammed Bukar, and Fatima
Dupe Adams. (2020). SYN-RIFT FLUVIO-LACUSTRINE DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEM OF THE
CRETACEOUS BIMA FORMATION IN THE GONGOLA SUB – BASIN, NORTHERN BENUE TROUGH,
NE, NIGERIA. International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH, 8(9), 54-62. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v8.i9.2020.1327 Received Date: 28 August 2020 Accepted Date: 25 September 2020 Keywords: Syn-Rift Fluvio-Lacustrine Depositional System Basin The facies analysis of the syn-rift sequences Bima I Formation in the Gongola Sub-basin of the Northern Benue Trough displayed assemblages of trough crossbedded sandstones facies, planar crossbedded sandstone facies, massive bedded sandstone facies, ripple laminated sandstone facies, parallel bedded sandstone facies and mudstones facies. These arrays of facies form two suites of facies association that consist of the lacustrine-delta complex depicting coarsening upward cycles and fluvial complexes showcasing fining upwards cycle the former accounts for a scenario where the incremental accommodation is lower than the sediment discharge, whereas the latter is reflective of a case where improved subsidence rate induces high accommodation rate that outruns sediment supply. The stratigraphic architecture of the syn-rift Bima I Formation indicated that the lacustrine-delta are restricted to the lower stratigraphic horizons whereas the fluvial complexes essentially defines the upper stratigraphic zones of this formation.
1. INTRODUCTIONThe intracratonic
Benue Trough located in Nigeria is part of the chain of basins in the West and
Central African Rift System, falling in between the Chad and Niger/Delta
Basins. It stretches for over 1000 km in length and varies in width between 50
– 150km (Fig.1), and host more than 6000m of Cretaceous – Tertiary sediments
associated with volcanics (Fig.2). Geographically, the basin is sub – divided
into Northern, Central and Southern portion with Northern Benue Trough constituting
of the Gongola, Yola and Muri – Lau Sub – basins (Dike, 2002). The trough
evolved as a consequence of the break – up of the African and South American
plates during the Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous times (Genik, 1992). Though,
its origin remained controversial owing to contrary theories of rift model
(Fairhead et al., 2013) and sinistral wrench faulting model (Benkhelil, 1989).
Nonetheless, its evolution and basin architecture is
quite defined with horst and graben system, typical of rift basin (Shettima,
2016). The opening of this trough is accompanied with Aptian – Albian marine
transgression that terminated in the Central Benue Trough, leaving continental
depositional processes to dominate the Northern Benue Trough, thereby
depositing the syn and post – rift sequences of the continental Bima Formation
(Guiraud, 1990).This depositional regime is synonymous to the Bornu Basin in
Nigeria (Avbovbo et al., 1986) and contemporaneously represents the basal
sedimentary sequences of the Doba, Deseo, Salamat, Grein, Kafra, Termit, Tenere
and Mugland Basins of the West and Central African Rift System (Genik, 1992).
Stratigraphic architectures of rift systems are commonly disposed with alluvial
fan, lacustrine and fluvial packages (Schlische and Olsen, 1990) but owing to
varying sedimentation and tectonics, several depositional packages may evolve
(Smooth, 1991). These varying packages have strong implication on the petroleum
system of these basins, hence the need to re-evaluate the Bima Formation in this
perspective. Therefore, this present research aims to examine in detail the
facies association and clay mineralogy of the entire Cretaceous Bima Formation
of the Gongola Sub – basin, with an objective of establishing depositional
styles and paleoenvironments. 2. GEOLOGICAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC SETTINGThe Nigerian Benue
Trough is a rift basin that falls into the Central West Africa and extends in
NNE-SSW direction for about 1000 km in length and 50-150 km in width (Genik,
1992; Nwajide 2013). The southern fringes is the
northern boundary of the Niger Delta, while the northern end is at the
Dumbulwa-Bage High, which marks the southern boundary of the Chad Basin (Fig.1)
(Zaborski et al., 1997). The Benue Trough is geographically subdivided into
Northern, Central and Southern Benue Trough (Fig.1). The Northern Benue Trough
is made up of three arms: the N-S striking Gongola
Arm, E-W striking Yola Arm and the NE-SW striking Muri-Lau Arm (Dike, 2002)
(Fig.2). The Trough is over 6000 m deep containing Cretaceous to Tertiary
sediments of which those predating the mid-Santonian have been tectonically
deformed, to form major faults and fold systems across the basin. The Bima
Group of the Aptian-Albian represents the oldest sedimentary units in the
Gongola Sub-basin, conformably overlying the Basement Complex Rocks (Fig.3)
(Guiraud,1990; Zaborski et al., 1997; Tukur et al., 2015; Shettima et al.,
2018). The deposition of syn-rift sequences thereof is largely controlled by
the horst and graben systems and is represented by the alluvial fan-lacustrine
deposits of the Bima I Formation, the lowermost in the group, which is
unconformably superposed by the post-rift braided river sequences of the Bima
II and III Formations (Zaborski et al., 1997; Tukur et al., 2015; Shettima et
al., 2018). The Yolde Formation
conformably succeeded in the Cenomanian, marked by the transitional-marine
deposits (Shettima et al., 2011), representing the onset of the mid-Cretaceous
global marine transgression in the basin (e.g. Haq et al.,1987). This reached
its climax in the Turonian and deposited the shallow marine shale and limestone
sequences of the Kanawa Member of the Pindiga Formation (Zarborski et al.,
1997; Abdulkarim et al., 2017). Regressive Sandy Members of the Dumbulwa,
Deba-Fulani and Gulani Sandstones conformably followed in the mid-Turonian with
decelerating transgressive conditions (Fig.3) (Zaborski et al., 1997; Nwajide,
2013). Renewed rising relative sea levels in the late Turonian transcending
into the Coniacian and early Santonian brought about the deposition of the deep
marine blue-black shales of the Fika Member, representing the youngest units of
the Pindiga Formation (Zaborski et al., 1997; Shettima, 2016). This marine
transgression is accompanied by compressional tectonics in the mid-Santonian
(Genik, 1993), which resulted from changing orientation of the displacement
vectors between the African plate and European/Tethys plates (Fairhead and
Binks, 1991). Thus, leading to thrusting of the pre-Maastrichtian sediments
towards the western regions of the Gongola Sub-basin, thereby creating an
accommodation for the deposition of the Campano-Maastrichtian regressive
deltaic sequences of the Gombe Formation (Dike and Onumara, 1999: Shettima,
2016). The mid-Maastrichtian is characterized by yet another phase of
compressional event and it is followed by the unconformable deposits of the
Paleogene fluvio-lacustrine Kerri Kerri Formation (Dike, 1993: Adegoke et al.,
1978) (Fig.3). volcanics are evident in the Paleogene-Neogene phase of the
sub-basin, commonly align along the eastern margin of the Gongola Sub-basin
(Wilson and Guiraud, 1992). 3. MATERIALS AND METHODSTopographic maps of
Bima hill and environs that are located within the Gongola Sub-basin were
employed in the fieldwork of this research to identify potential areas where the
Bima Formation are well exposed. Along these well exposed outcrops identified,
lithostratigraphic sections of this Formation outcropping around Bima hill were
systematically logged to record data on lithologic variations, texture, bed
geometry, paleocurrents, sedimentary structures and fossil content. Based on
facies concept and application of Walters law in conjunction with facies
relation provided by sedimentologic studies on ancient and modern environment,
these data were utilized in designating lithofacies assemblages representing
particular depositional environment. Paleocurrent measurements were also
carried out on the abundant planar and trough crossbedded sandstones and the
various orientations determined were used to evaluate provenance and hydrodynamic
processes (e.g. Tucker, 2003). The dip and strike as well as the azimuth of the
crossbeds were measured using compass clinometers in this analysis, and
considering that the regional dips of the beds are generally greater than 10o,
tilt correction was also carried out on the values using the procedure adopted
by (Tucker, 2003). 4. RESULTFacies
St: trough crossbedded sandstone facies. This
lithofacies is generally composed of very coarse-grained sandstones that are
dominantly poorly sorted with sub-angular to sub-rounded grains, and range in
thickness from 1.5 m to 6 m (Fig. 4a). Basal boundaries are typically erosional
and dominantly associated with mudclast and relatively few granules of quartz
and feldspars. Cobbles and pebbles align these boundaries (Fig. 4f) and stacked
successions units of up to 12 m thick are common. They are usually succeeded by
rippled laminated sandstone (Sr) and mudstone (Fm) facies. This lithofacies was
interpreted to have formed due to migrating sinuous 3-D dunes that stack up to
generate bar forms in channel (Miall, 1978, 2010; Plint, 1983; Tucker, 2003). Facies
Sp: tabular (planar) crossbedded sandstone facies. This
lithofacies is composed of poorly sorted medium-coarse grained sandstone with
sub-angular grains, typically superposed trough crossbedded sandstone facies
with thicknesses in the range of 50 cm-1 m. Individual foresets occurring in mm
scale (Fig. 4b). The units are commonly intercalated with trough crossbedded
sandstone (St) and parallel bedded sandstone (Sl1). It This lithofacies was
interpreted to have been produced from migration of 2-D dunes or sheet loading
(Feary, 1984) while Miall (1978, 1996, 2010) interpreted it as transverse bars
formed under lower flow regime. Facies
Sm: massive sandstone facies. This
lithofacies is composed of poorly sorted medium- very coarse
grained sandstone with sub-angular grains (Fig. 4c). It ranges in
thickness between 50cm and 2m, cobbles and pebbles and most commonly overlain
by trough crossbedded sandstone facies (St) and ripple laminated sandstone
facies (St). The facies was probably deposited on bars
by stream floods or channelized flood flows around bars (Miall, 1978, 1996, 2010). Facies
Sr: ripple laminated sandstone facies. This
lithofacies is characterized by medium grained sandstone, but occasionally
coarse grained demonstrating dominantly moderate sorting and sub-angular to
sub-rounded grains (Fig. 4d). They are commonly overlain by mudstone facies
(Fm) and where this facies is absent, parallel
laminated sandstone facies (Sl) and massive bedded sandstones (Sm) are found.
Miall (1978, 1996) suggested it to have formed from migrating current ripples,
under lower flow regime.
Handford (1982) and Rust and Koster (1984) considered it as a product of waning
flow sheet flood deposits. Facies SlI: parallel
bedded sandstone facies. This lithofacies consist of a poorly sorted
medium- very coarse grained sandstone with sub-angular
grains. Individual bed thickness ranges from 30 cm-1.2 m, while laminations
varied from 1 to 3 cm and are mostly underlain by trough crossbedded sandstone
facies (St) (Fig. 4e). They are formed from either upper plane-bed phase
lamination, or lower plane-bed phase lamination (e.g. Tucker, 2003). The bedded
nature of the sandstone result from changing depositional conditions that
causes variation either in grain size, content of clay and organic material,
mineral composition or microfossil content of sediments. Miall (1978, 1996,
2010), indicated that these facies were formed under plane bed flow
(super-critical flow). Facies
Fm: mudstone facies. This
lithofacies is dark grey-black at the lower stratigraphic horizons of the Bima
I Formation and light grey- purple coloured at its uppermost limits with
thicknesses ranging from 40 cm to 30 m. They are generally devoid of
bioturbations, but occasionally caliche nodules are locally present and are
found commonly above trough crossbedded sandstone facies (St), planar
crossbedded sandstone facies (Sp), and ripple laminated sandstone facies (Sr)
(Fig.4f). It typically forms where water energy is sufficiently low to allow
settling of suspended fine silt and clay (Miall, 1977; Rust, 1978; Tucker, 2003). 5. SEDIMENTARY FACIES CHARACTERIZATIONTemporal
lithostratigraphic characterization of the facies of the syn-rift Bima I
Formation at Bima hill outcrop of this formation indicated a dominance of
coarsening upwards sequences. This progressively tapers to fining upward cycles
towards the upper stratigraphic profile of Bima I Formation (Fig.4g and h).
These coarsening upward cycles composes of thick black claystone/mudstone at
base that gradually passing into succession of coarse grained and mudstones
interbedded of mostly dark grey to black in the middle, and to thick light
brown pebbly to very coarse-grained sandstone at top. The thick claystone
/mudstone or shales usually occur in varying thickness (7– 34m), which tends to
reduce progressively in the uppermost cycles of the formation. The interbedded fine-grained
sandstone and claystone occurring in the middle part of the cycle ranges in
thickness from 3.2 – 21m. These units compose of ripple or parallel bedded
sandstone that are locally host pebbles and cobbles, and are occasionally
associated few units of massive beds. The thick light grey sandstone occurring
in the topmost part of the coarsening upward cycle are 2.2m – 10m thick, and
are dominantly of trough crossbedded sandstone and massive sandstone. Locally,
planar crossbedded sandstone and ripple laminated sandstone are also common.
Above the coarsening upward cycles occurs the vertically stacked fining upward
cycles with increasing propensity at the upper stratigraphic levels of this
formation where they essentially define the architectural framework. The fining
upward cycles of light grey very coarse-grained trough crossbedded sandstones
(1.5 – 4m thick) with erosional contact associated with mudclasts at the base
which temporally transit into grey claystones of about 40-60 cm thick. 6. LITHOFACIES ASSEMBLAGEThe lithofacies in
the Bima I Formation were grouped into two facies associations: Delta complex
facies association (BAI) and Fluvial complex facies association (BAII) Association BAI:
Delta complex facies association This facies
association (Fig.5) is dominantly formed of coarsening upward cycle associated
couplets of fining upward cycles demonstrating fluvio-lacustrine interactions.
The coarsening upwards cycles is characterized by a procession of lacustrine
mudstones at base that gradually interfingering with very coarse
grained sandstones that often pebbly which are topped essentially by
thick very coarse grained sandstones that forms the mouth bars in this delta
complex. The interbedded sandstones are mostly massive bedded, whereas the
mouth-bar units are generally trough crossbedded displaying abundant pebbles
and cobble concentration and occasionally rock fragments are also present. The
associated fining upwards cycles occurs above these units when present with a
typical erosional contact showcasing assemblages of mudclasts and pebbles. Association BAII:
Fluvial complex facies Association This facies
association consist of stacked amalgamated succession of fining upward cycles
consisting of a very coarse grained, poorly sorted trough crossbedded sandstone
facies (St) with erosional base having pebble lag deposits and mudclasts mostly
capped by mudstone facies (Fm) and occasionally medium grained sandstones
(Fig.5). Though that the facies association occur at the upper stratigraphic
levels, at fringes its fringes, the sandstone of these fining upwards cycles transform to a dominantly fine-medium grained sandstones and
the mudstones facies are mostly purple colored. 7. DISCUSSIONThe structural
configuration of the Gongola Sub-basin built of half graben system provided the
template for the evolution of the facies assemblages in the syn-rift Bima I
Formation which indicated the development of lacustrine, deltaic and fluvial
depositional environment in the non-marine rift complex (Fig.6). Interfingering
emplacement of these depositional styles are largely controlled by subsidence,
tectonics and climate, powered by the balance between rate of creation of
accommodation space and sediment supply (Gawthrope and Leader, 2002). Ideally,
the dominant depositional setting in
this syn-rift system are the fluvial environment which required
relatively steep slope to develop and propagate axially and the lacustrine
settings that are dependent on the basin outlet that perched above the
depositional system whereas the development of the delta is a confluence
product of the interaction between these two environment (Lambaise, 1990;
Withjack et al., 2002). The overlapping interrelationship between the
accommodation space sediment supply and water predetermines which out of
depositional environment in a particular rift basin. The stratigraphic
architecture of the syn-rift Bima I Formation indicated a clear reflection in
temporal changes in these basin defining phenomenal
attributes. The basal sequence of this formation is characterized by stacked
succession of fluvial cycles accounts for a phase where the rate of sediment
supply exceeds the incremental accommodation space, suggesting a concurrent low
subsidence rate for the basin (e.g. Catuneanu, 2006). Improved subsidence
initiated the generation of lacustrine system, because of the starved sediment
supply, improved accommodation and likely favorable humid climatic conditions.
The associated deltaic phase in these assemblage accounts for a period of high
sediment impulse than normal most probably tectonically and climatically driven
from a steep slope boundary normal fault system (e.g. Einsele, 2000: Catuneanu,
2006). Post-dating these lacustrine phases in the stratigraphic architecture of
Bima I Formation are renewed overwhelming fluvial discharges accruing from
accommodation creation, thus supporting the formation of the fluvial system
that characterizes the upper stratigraphic horizon of the Bima I
Formation. 8. CONCLUSIONThe syn-rift
sequence of the Bima I Formation indicated the assemblages of trough
crossbedded sandstones facies, planar crossbedded sandstone facies, massive
bedded sandstone facies, ripple laminated sandstone facies, parallel bedded
sandstone facies and mudstones facies.
The association of these facies gave rise to fining and coarsening
upward cycles that are reflective of fluvial complexes that are product of a
scenario of greater sediment discharge than incremental accommodation space,
and a lacustrine-delta complexes that reveals a phase of high rate of creation
than sediment supply respectively. the lacustrine delta complexes are typically
constricted to the lower stratigraphic zones of the Bima I Formation while the
fluvial complexes predominating the upper stratigraphic levels of the formation SOURCES OF FUNDINGThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. CONFLICT OF INTERESTThe author have declared that no competing interests exist. ACKNOWLEDGMENTNone. REFERENCES
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