Khmer Art Samplings: Ideological influence of Indian knowledge through Hindu Divinities

 

R.K.K. Rajarajan ¹, S. Palanikumar ²

 

¹ Gandhigram Rural University, Gandhigram, Tamil Nadu, India

² Athoor Cooperative Arts and Science College, Athoor, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu, India

 

1. INTRODUCTION

The word Khmer (kmer, ke mer; origin late 19th century) stands for the people, the ancient kingdom and official language of Cambodia and also a Republic that flourished during 1970-75.[1] The Encarta Dictionaries give the following meanings of the word:

·        A member of the most populous people in Cambodia.

·        An inhabitant of the ancient kingdom that flourished in the Mekong valley (upper reaches of Thailand, adjoining Myanmar) between the 9th and 13th centuries.

·        Official language of Cambodia belonging to the Mon-Khmer family, total of speakers 5 million.

·        It was an ancient kingdom that flourished in the Mekong valley (9th to 13th centuries). Its capital was Angkor, north-western part of modern Cambodia[2] Figure 1.

Figure 1

                                                                     

Figure 1 Prasat Phimai, Khao Noi, Prachinburi Province (hilly terrain), Cambodia

 

However, art historians by Khmer denote the architecturally constructive work from the upper Thailand, excluding Myanmar (Burma), down to Java, with its epicenters in Angkor Wat, Angkor Tham,[3] Borobudur and Prāmbanan (Rajarajan (2020)). Ever since the French discovered the ruins of the Khmer civilization in Cambodia (mid-19th century CE) a bumper crop of research works has been published in journals and books.[4]

Rooney (1994) brings the development of Khmer Empire (for the chronology see (Briggs (1951a): 186) architecture under certain stylistic periods, named after a principal site or a specific temple. These styles were demarcated by the French experts as enumerated below:

Kulen:

Date                 9th century (c. 825-75)

King                 Jayavarmaṉ II (802-50 CE)[5]

Monuments  The Phnom Kulam

Prah Kō:

Date                 Last quarter of the 9th century (c. 875-93 CE)

King                 Indravarmaṉ I (877-89 CE)

Monuments  Prah Kō (879 CE), Bakong (881 CE), Lolei (893 CE)

Bakheng:

Date                 Late 9th and early 19t century (c. 893-925 CE)

King                 Yaśovarmaṉ I (889-900 CE)

Monuments  Phnom Bakheng (893 CE), Phnom Krom, Baksei Chamkrong,[6] Prasat Kravan (921 CE)

Koh Ker:

Date                 First half of the 10th century (c. 921-45 CE)

King                 Jayavarmaṉ IV (921-42 CE)

Monuments  the Koḥ Ker (Chok Gargyar) Group (Briggs (1951a): 117, plan 6, fig. 21)

Banteay Srei :

Date                 Later half of the 10th century (967-1000 CE)

King                 Rājēndravarmaṉ II and Jayavarmaṉ V

Monuments  Banteay Srei (967 CE)

Kleang:

Date                 Later half of the 10th and early 11th century (c. 965-1010 CE)

King                 Jayavarmaṉ V (968-1001 CE)

Monuments  Ta Keo (c. 1000 CE), North and South Kleangs, Phimeanakas[7] (c. 970 CE)

Baphuon:

Date                 11th century (c. 1010-80 CE)

King                 Sūryavarmaṉ (1002-50 CE), Udayādityavarmaṉ (1050-66 CE)

Monuments  Baphuon (Gail (2016): 7-29), West Mebon, Kbal Spean

Angkor Wat:

Date                 12th century (c. 1100-75 CE)

King                 Sūryavarmaṉ II (1113 - c. 1150 CE)

Monuments  Prah Palilay, Chau Say Tevoda, Thommanon, Banteay Samre, Angkor Wat (1113-50 CE)

Bayon:

Date                 last quarter of 12th and early 13th century (C. 1177-1230 CE)

King                 Jayavarmaṉ VII (1181-1220; Vickery (1985): 226-44 CE)

Monuments  Banteay Kdei (1181 CE), Ta Prohm (1186 CE), Prah Khan (1191), Ta Som, Angkor Thom Enclosure and Gates, Bayon (c. 1200 CE), Royal Terraces, Srah Srang, Neak Pean 

The above tabulation would reveal the fact that Khmer architecture was contemporaneous Cōḻa art in its Early (Vijayālaya [beginning 850 CE] to Sundara Cōḻa), Middle (Rājarāja I to Adhirājēndra) and Later phase (Kulōttuṅga I to Rajēndra III [end 1250 CE]). The stone and bronze sculptures of this vast era in art show unmistakable traces of Indian influence, particularly Cōḻa. In spite of the influences the sculptures are ingeniously cast to earmark a style of art called Khmer that is visible in the anatomical features of the faces, ornamental foliage’s and garments.

Dawn F. Rooney says the King in Khmer tradition was a veritable incarnation of God, the devarāja cult, an idea that the Cōḻas adumbrated, e.g., the God and King called Rājarāja/Rājarājeśvara and the temple Rājarājeśvaram Figure 2.[8] Four phases are discerned in the style of Khmer art (Rooney (1994): 73):

Figure 2

                                                                      

Figure 2 Bṛhadīśvara Temple, Tañcāvūr

 

·        Mid-8th to mid-9th century: The images show a rigidity of the parts of the body such as head, torso, and legs. Each part is clearly defined. There is a deep incising either vertically or horizontally. The male dress is draped over left thigh in pocket-like fold and in front in the shape of an anchor.

·        Mid-10th to mid-11th century: The profile is unified. The images have a sense of softness. Drapery and headdress are less emphasized. The garments have incised edges.

·        12th century: Sculptural technology during this period bestowed more attention to bas-relief and bronzes (Kempers (1933): 1-88)[9].

·        Late 12th and early 13th century: The spreading nāga hood, giant heads of gods and demons (as in the Bayon, e.g., Churning the Ocean of Milk) and colossal faces on towers were emerging. This was the peak of Khmer architecture and iconography.

                                                                    II

With this small introduction, the present article examines samples of Khmer iconography that betray their indebtedness to Indian thought, particularly Tamil, in as far as their ideological setting is concerned. The prāsāda (means “palace” or “temple” – Rajarajan (2011): Chap. I)[10] consist of the vimāna (i), ardhamaṇḍapa (ii), mahāmaṇḍapa (iii) and agramaṇḍapa (iv) as one may find in the Rājarājeśvarams at Tañcāvūr and Kaṅkaikoṇṭacōḻapuram.[11] These temples also make a good comparison with their counterparts in the Hoysala monuments of a contemporary period (infra). Even when these Tamil elements of the architectural style could be detected, the temples at Angkor Wat, Angkor Tham, Borobudur and Prāmbanan are veritable “temple-mountains”. Such monuments in pyramidal proportions are not to be found in Tamilnadu, excepting the Rājarājeśvarams. If one makes an entry into a Khmer temple and observes it sculptural decoration, he is sure to feel he is in Ajaṇṭa, Ellora, Deogarh, Māmallapuram, Kāñcīpuram,[12] Haḷebīḍu or Koṇāraka. Now let us examine few of the iconographical masterpieces. The themes cover Viṣṇu, Śiva and the minor gods such as Indra. In all these images even though the ideological setting is in Indian thought the decorative aspects such as scroll work, floral or faunal frieze, kīrtimukhas and such other additional ornamentations are typically Khmer.[13] The present article considers few of the Vaiṣṇava images and a rare Nṛttamurti-Śiva for exemplification.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Śeṣaśāyī:

Figure 3

                                                                     

Figure 3 Śeṣaśāyī, Prasat Kamphaeng Yai, Thailand

 

Two examples of reclining Viṣṇu are reported herein. One is found on the lintel (Marcus (1968): 321-30) of the Prasat Kamphaeng Yai, Thailand Figure 3. The Lord Viṣṇu is found reclining on the serpent couch supporting his head with the bent left arm. The snake’s coil is single and extends leftward. The five hoods of Ādiśeṣa or Ananta are prominently shown above the head of Raṅgaśāyī.[14] Brahmā is found seated on the lotus emanating from the Lord’s umbilicus. Garuḍa with an awkward face and tongue peeping out is seated near the Lord’s feet. He is in a peculiar, seated posture with the right leg bent at knee and rested on earth and the left knee bent and erect.

What is interesting in this image is that three Devīs are seated near the Lord’s feet. All three are found massaging the Lord’s feet and thigh. Normally is Śeṣaśāyī images one or two Devīs are present (Parimoo (1983): figs. 1-77, cf. Kalidos (1993) and Kalidas (2006): Chap. I, Gail (2012): figs. 38-45, 47 and 64, Rajarajan et al. (2017b): 162-164, figs. 49, 53, 116-119). The presence of three Devīs is a very rare occurrence.[15] The root for this idea is found in the Tamil Nālāyiram:

Piṉṉaikol Nilamakaḷkol Tirumakaḷkol (Tiruvāymoḻi 6.5.10)

Tirumakaḷum maṇmakaḷum āyamakaḷum cērntāṉ (Tiruvantati 1. 42) 

Uṭaṉamar kātal makaḷir tirumakaḷ maṇmakalāyar

Maṭamakaḷ eṉṟivar mūvarāḷum ulakamum mūṉṟē (Tiruvāymoḻi 1.9.4)

These verses clearly state the Devīs of the Lord are Piṉṉai, Nilamakaḷ or Maṇmakaḷ (Bhūdevī) and Tirumakaḷ (Śrīdevī). The last verse is very important because if states when the Lord is united with the three, he represents the three worlds and that he is the Cosmic Principle (Kalidos (2012)). This is a clear case of the ideological influence of the Tamil Nālāyiram in the sculptural work of Thailand. In my opinion a Tamil sculptor familiar with the Nālāyiram must have sculpted this image. Sanskrit literature, either the canon or corpus, does not link three Devīs with Śeṣaśāyī. Scholars who examined the image earlier have rarely noted the three Devīs and did not point out their importance.

Another interesting image of reclining Viṣṇu on the Reachisey is from Prasat Phanom Rung Figure 4.[16] It appears on the northern pediment of the temple. The image is four-armed, the back right hand supporting the head. The front left hand holds a gadā, rested on earth. The front right arm is laid up on the body. What is interesting is the face in Mongolian anatomical mode. The headgear and garments are in typical Khmer style.

Figure 4

                                                                     

Figure 4 Śeṣaśāyī, Prasat Phanom Rung, Thailand

 

                                                                     

Figure 5 River of Thousand Liṅgas, Kbal Spean

 

Figure 6   

                                                                       

Figure 6 Miniature carvings of śayana Viṣṇu

 

Figure 7

                                                                     

Figure 7 River of Thousand Liṅgas, Kbal Spean

 

Figure 8

                                                                       

Figure 8 Liṅgas and Śayana Viṣṇu

 

 

 

Figure 9

                                                                        

Figure 9 River of Thousand Liṅgas, Kbal Spean

 

There is quite a difference in visual representation between the Prasat Kamphaeng Yai and the Prasat Phanom Rung images, the former reclines from left to right while the later vice versa. Though Kamphaeng Yai is damaged and not vividly decorated, but the Phanom Rung clearly shows underwater nature legibly with the flora and aquatic nature and so the reposing Viṣṇu may be comfortably identified as symbolic representation of Jalaśayana. The Jalaśayana representations are common in Southeast Asian art, especially in Kbal Spean (see Rajarajan (2020): Fig 5, James (2011): figs. 5.10 – 5-12).[17] Though the Kbal Spean carvings are known as ‘River of Thousand Liṅgas’ Figure 5, but there are many reposing Viṣṇu carvings Figure 6, Figure 7 too, both the Liṅgas and reclining Viṣṇus image are entwiningly carved Figure 8, Figure 9. According to the existing inscriptions, during the early eleventh century under the reign of Sūryavarmaṉ I (1002-1050) the sahasra ‘thousand’ Liṅgas was carved, similarly Udayādityavarmaṉ II (1050-1066) contribution to the site seems too higher than his predecessor. Though both the rulers appear to be Śaivites through the inscriptional sources (Chevance 2104: 209-210), yet their contribution to Vaiṣṇavites art and architecture is plenty. A good example is the West Baray was the work of Sūryavarmaṉ I and Udayādityavarmaṉ II built the West Mebon, both are exclusively dedicated to Viṣṇu.[18] The restructuring of the waterbody at Angkor might have happened many times, similarly carvings of Śaiva and Vaiṣṇava themes at Kbal Spean, also have evolved over centuries. The sporadic recurrent carvings of Liṅgas and Jalaśayana Viṣṇus at the water course emphasize the sanctification of the Angkor water bodies.[19]

Vāmana:

The twin, Vāmana-Trivikrama, is the fifth avatāra of Viṣṇu. An image on the lintel of the Prasat Muang Khaek (Phimai Museum) presents Vāmana in a peculiar posture Figure 10. By the way we may note Vāmana was a cherished theme in the hymns of the Āḻvārs. He was called Kuṟaḷ (Tiruvāymoḻi 1.10.1), Māṇi or Māṇikkuṟalaṉ (Periyāḻvār Tirumoḻi 1.4.1)[20], Kuṟiyaṉ (Ganeshram, S. (2010)) and Vāmaṉaṉ (Periya Tirumoḻi 8.3.10). The cult of Vāmana seems to have been very popular during the high medieval period. There is a temple for Vāmana among the Khajurāho group of monuments in Madhya-Bhārat. The Tiruccantaviruttam v. 74 says:

Aṟintaṟintu vāmaṉaṉaṭiyiṇai vaṇaṅkiṉāl

Ceṟinteḻunta ñāṉamōṭū celvamum ciṟantiṭum.

“If you extol the sacred feet of the Dwarf, your wisdom and riches increase and the evils vanish” (Kalidas, R. (2006): I, 8).

Figure 10

                                                                     

Figure 10 Trivikrama, Lopburi Art, Prasat Muang Khaek, Phimai Museum, Thailand

 

The image under Figure 10 study is set within a Khmer type of aedicule or what is called devakoṣṭha in Tamil tradition (cf. Figure 2). The lower garment is in typical Khmer pattern. The headgear appears to be a cap-like jaṭāmakuṭa. The image is four-armed and seems to carry the kamaṇḍalu and puṣtaka in the left hands. The objects in right hands are not clear. The Lord has just started measuring the worlds as Vāmana and has not reached the level of Trivikrama. The right leg is lifted and placed on the hands of Mahābali. To the left Sukrācārya is found seated. Below the legs few fishes are found which means it represents the netherworld to which place Bali was sent at the end of the striding activity. The aedicule on either side is decorated with scroll work and foliages that very much gets closer to Hoysala decorative work (Settar (1991): II, figs. 83-88, Foekema (1994): Fig 12). In the upper part are found four ṛṣis seated in utkuṭikāsana and hands held in añjalibandha. Tassels move on either side of the aedicule at the far end of which Garuḍa-like figures with elongated beaks seated on leogriffs appear. Upon the tassels hamsas are found flapping their wings.[21] These may symbolically suggest the “wisdom” that the Lord promises to his adherents (cf. the Nālāyiram verse n. 7).

In Indian art Vāmana usually appears a bālaka-brahmacāri (Ganeshram (2010): fig. CP XV-6) holding an umbrella and puṣtaka. He is not engaged in striding action. In the present Khmer image, he is doing it. This is the novelty of the theme. The image is said to be in Koh Ker style and dated around c. 640 CE.

Kāḷiyamardana:

Figure 11

                                                                     

Figure 11 Kāḷiyamardana Kṛṣṇa, Prasat Muang Tam, Buriram, Thailand

 

Figure 12

                                                                      

Figure 12 Kāḷiyamardana and Trivikrama, Māriyammaṉ Temple tēr, Peṇṇakkōṇam

 

Kāḷiyamardana is a coveted theme in the hymns of the Āḻvārs and the Bhāgavata Purāṇa (Kalidas (2006): I, 13, 43-44). The inner lintel of the inner eastern gopura of Prasat Muang Tam illustrates a glamorous scene of Kṛṣṇa dancing on the hood of Kāliya Figure 11.[22] It is a picturesque portrayal showing Kāliya with seven hoods. Kṛṣṇa stands on the middle hood and kicks another hood with his left leg. Above is a decorative element, resembling the Khmer aedicule within which the image is set. Foliages and scroll work go on magnifying on either side of the relief that recall the decorative elements in Hoysala art.

An array of wood-carvings Figure 12 on the Māriyammaṉ Temple tēr ‘temple car’, Peṇṇakkōṇam,[23] Perampaḷur District depicts five separate panels in a row. The panel runs as Garuḍārūḍa ‘Viṣṇu seated on Garuḍa’, Trivikrama with the left leg on the head of Mahābali, the typical wood carved Kāḷiyamardana ‘Kṛṣṇa dancing on the single headed Kāḷiya and holding the tail of the snake’, Trivikrama with the left leg on a creeper, and Mahābali with añjali pose receiving Vāmana. The panels run from right to left, it is very interesting to note the Kāḷiyamardana scene is accommodated in between the recurring Vāmana Trivikrama panels. The depiction of kīrtimukha in each of the panels correlates with the lintel panels of the South-east Asian samples.

Dance of Śiva:

A gorgeous scene of the Dance of Śiva is portrayed in the Sikhoraphum Temple, Surin Figure 13.[24] The central figure in this illustration is Śiva dancing the caturam, a mode popular with early medieval South India as may be found in Ellora Caves XX and XXIX, Badāmī Cave I, Paraṅkuṉṟam and other places (Kalidas (2006): II, pls. xxxv. 1, xliii. 2, c. 1). The Lord is endowed with ten arms that expand on both sides in a circular form. The left leg is planted on earth and right slightly lifted in kuñcita mode, thus forming a caturam.[25] The pedestal upon which the Lord dances is supported by swans. Below the swans a kīrtimukha is found. To the right and left are found Kālī, Viṣṇu, Brahmā and Gaṇapati. On either side of the kīrtimukha six dancing divinities are present.[26] To the upper left the Kiratārjunīyam episode from the Mahābhārata is illustrated in miniature relief (Rajarajan (2021a): 355-366). To the upper right Śiva perhaps is fighting with a demon.

Figure 13

                                                                     

Figure 13 Dance of Śiva, Sikhoraphum, Surin, Thailand

 

On the whole this lintel image is one of the most illuminating in the entire range of South and South Asian art. In my opinion, it seems to have been inspired by the Tēvāram (6.227.10) hymns in one of which Nāvukkaracar has the following to say:

           Kōvāyavintiraṉ nuḷḷiṭṭārākak Kumaraṉum vikkiṉ Vināyakaṉṉum

           pūvāyapīṭattu mēlayaṉṉum pūmiyaḷantāṉum pōṟṟicaippap

pāvāya viṉṉicaikaḷ pāṭiyāṭip pāriṭamuntāmum parantupaṟṟi… (Kalidos 1996: 34).

The hymn says the Lord danced to the tune of the music generated by Indra, Kumaraṉ/Murukaṉ, Vigna-Vināyaka, Ayaṉ/Brahmā and Pūmiyaḷantāṉ (one who measured the worlds, i.e., Trivikrama/Viṣṇu). In addition to these that the corpus prescribes, the Khmer artist has taken the privilege of inducting several other luminaries and mythical events such as the six additional dancing divinities and Kiratārjunīyam in this revealing picture of the Dance of Śiva.[27]

The present study is incomplete. There are several other specimens that I have collected such as Śiva and Devī seated on the bull (Vṛṣabhārūḍa; Rajarajan (1996): 305-310), Dancing Kāla, Indra seated on an elephant, Airāvata, that has heads facing the cardinal directions and so on.[28] These images constitute a milieu in the history of Khmer sculpture and the syncretistic forms in the evolution of Southeast Asian art (Briggs (1951), Lavy (2003)). Scholars may differ in opinion with either the Sanskritic (Havenon 2006/2007: 91) or Tamil (Wheatley (1974); James (2011):21-22, 220; Feneley et al. (2016): 287) influence was predominate in Hindu visual culture of Southeast Asia, but none can deny that it was purely the Indian Art that was indigenized to the Southeast Asian culture. Yet the question of Pallava and Cōḻa relation with the Southeast regions, and the quantum of the Tamil bhakti literary influence in these regions are yet to be analyzed, the question will remain open for further research.[29] A Day should come when these places are visited for field work so that more elements from the Indian subcontinent that have found the way with the trade winds to Cambodia and Java could be brought to the light. I may add Cambodia, Java and Thailand are the artistic paradise on the Southeast Asian artistic world.

 

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

None. 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai for awarding the Dr. Devangana Desai Endowment Senior Scholarship for the year 2022-2023 to work on the “Temple Cars of the Far South: Survey and Documentation”.

 

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