KHMER ART SAMPLINGS: IDEOLOGICAL INFLUENCE OF INDIAN KNOWLEDGE THROUGH HINDU DIVINITIES

The importance of the medieval art history of Southeast Asia is still a virgin site, which needs to be explored with multi-disciplinary approach and methodology. The transcultural aspects between India and Southeast Asia from ancient to late medieval period cannot be contemplated through a single medium, it needs to be analyzed from various angles through religious sources, philosophical materials and visual contents. The main focus of the present study is on interlinks of religious arts. Few iconographical sample forms from the various monuments of Angkor are taken for critical analysis, such as Śeṣaśāyī, Vamana, Kāḷiyamardana and Dance of Śiva. The common designs in iconographic cornice will have to be recognized in comparative religious studies, getting beyond the shackles of spirituality if we are to discover the ancient heritages. There is no much deviation in representation of the Buddhist and Hindu imagery in India and Southeast Asia but the localization is visually sensed. The cultural links of ancient Indian Knowledge System between Southeast Asia, China and Japan is entangled in the annals of the history.


INTRODUCTION
The word Khmer (kmer, ke mer; origin late 19th century) stands for the people, the ancient kingdom and official language of Cambodia and also a Republic that flourished during 1970-75. 1 The Encarta Dictionaries give the following meanings of the word: 67 • A member of the most populous people in Cambodia.
• An inhabitant of the ancient kingdom that flourished in the Mekong valley (upper reaches of Thailand, adjoining Myanmar) between the 9th and 13th centuries.• Official language of Cambodia belonging to the Mon-Khmer family, total of speakers 5 million.• It was an ancient kingdom that flourished in the Mekong valley (9th to 13th centuries).Its capital was Angkor, north-western part of modern Cambodia 2 Figure 1.However, art historians by Khmer denote the architecturally constructive work from the upper Thailand, excluding Myanmar (Burma), down to Java, with its epicenters in Angkor Wat, Angkor Tham, 3 Borobudur and Prāmbanan (Rajarajan (2020)).Ever since the French discovered the ruins of the Khmer civilization in Cambodia (mid-19th century CE) a bumper crop of research works has been published in journals and books. 4 Rooney (1994) brings the development of Khmer Empire (for the chronology see (Briggs (1951a): 186) architecture under certain stylistic periods, named after a principal site or a specific temple.These styles were demarcated by the French experts as enumerated below: Kulen: Date 9th century (c.825-75) King Jayavarmaṉ II (802-50 CE) 5 Higham (1998): (236-239, Figs. 1 and 2) earmarks the geographical zones of the Phimai region by dividing into six phases of development from prehistoric to historic periods (1000 BCE to 1300 CE) as Tamyae, Prasat, Classical Phimai, Late Phimai, Muang Sema and Lopburi.
Angkor was the capital of the ancient Khmer civilization, now in Cambodia, is a tourist center in addition to being a Garden of Eden for scholars who work on Southeast Asian art.
For a brief account seen references.I am thankful to Raju Kalidos (under DAAD Fellowship) collection from the Institut fur Indische Philologie und Kunstgeschichte of the Freie Universität Berlin.He had collected enormous data on the subject that helps our research today.
The Pallavas were first Tamil rulers to establish the real contact with Southeast Asia that reflected in the Hindu remnants of the maritime routes (Christie (1998)).Pallava influence script in inscriptions is popular in the Hindu monuments of Southeast Asia (Woodword, H. (2005): 40, 51, 91).When the name ends with "varmaṉ" ("ṉ" dental voiceless nasal) it shows Pallava influence (Czuma, S. (1974): 119;2000: 131).If it ends with "varma" it may be Sanskrit.However, the other constituents of the name such as Jaya (Victory), Sūrya (Sun), Yaśo (yaśas means full of glory or reputation), Rājēndra (Tamil Irācēntiraṉ, King Indra) and Indra (King of Gods) are Sanskrit (Rajarajan (2022) The above tabulation would reveal the fact that Khmer architecture was contemporaneous Cōḻa art in its Early (Vijayālaya [beginning 850 CE] to Sundara Cōḻa), Middle (Rājarāja I to Adhirājēndra) and Later phase (Kulōttuṅga I to Rajēndra III [end 1250 CE]).The stone and bronze sculptures of this vast era in art show unmistakable traces of Indian influence, particularly Cōḻa.In spite of the influences the sculptures are ingeniously cast to earmark a style of art called Khmer that is visible in the anatomical features of the faces, ornamental foliage's and garments.
Dawn F. Rooney says the King in Khmer tradition was a veritable incarnation of God, the devarāja cult, an idea that the Cōḻas adumbrated, e.g., the God and King called Rājarāja/Rājarājeśvara and the temple Rājarājeśvaram  • Mid-8th to mid-9th century: The images show a rigidity of the parts of the body such as head, torso, and legs.Each part is clearly defined.There is a deep incising either vertically or horizontally.The male dress is draped over left thigh in pocket-like fold and in front in the shape of an anchor.• Mid-10th to mid-11th century: The profile is unified.The images have a sense of softness.Drapery and headdress are less emphasized.The garments have incised edges.• 12th century: Sculptural technology during this period bestowed more attention to bas-relief and bronzes (Kempers (1933): 1-88)9 .
8 Inscriptional sources would reveal Rājarāja took the title Śivapādaśekhara (Garland at the feet of Śiva).See Tañcāvūr Inscriptions (Rajarajan (2016a): fn.9) note Civapātacēkaran.His original name was Arumoḻivarmaṉ and the name given at the time of anointment during the coronation was Rājarāja, which is an epithet of Śiva as it appears in the Śivasahasranāma (no.983, Rajarajan (2021)).Some suggest the temple was named after the Cōḻa Emperor.I may view it otherwise; it was named after the King of Gods, devarāja-Śiva.
• Late 12th and early 13th century: The spreading nāga hood, giant heads of gods and demons (as in the Bayon, e.g., Churning the Ocean of Milk) and colossal faces on towers were emerging.This was the peak of Khmer architecture and iconography.II With this small introduction, the present article examines samples of Khmer iconography that betray their indebtedness to Indian thought, particularly Tamil, in as far as their ideological setting is concerned.The prāsāda (means "palace" or "temple" -Rajarajan (2011): Chap.I) 10 consist of the vimāna (i), ardhamaṇḍapa (ii), mahāmaṇḍapa (iii) and agramaṇḍapa (iv) as one may find in the Rājarājeśvarams at Tañcāvūr and Kaṅkaikoṇṭacōḻapuram. 11 These temples also make a good comparison with their counterparts in the Hoysala monuments of a contemporary period (infra).Even when these Tamil elements of the architectural style could be detected, the temples at Angkor Wat, Angkor Tham, Borobudur and Prāmbanan are veritable "temple-mountains".Such monuments in pyramidal proportions are not to be found in Tamilnadu, excepting the Rājarājeśvarams.If one makes an entry into a Khmer temple and observes it sculptural decoration, he is sure to feel he is in Ajaṇṭa, Ellora, Deogarh, Māmallapuram, Kāñcīpuram, 12 Haḷebīḍu or Koṇāraka.Now let us examine few of the iconographical masterpieces.The themes cover Viṣṇu, Śiva and the minor gods such as Indra.In all these images even though the ideological setting is in Indian thought the decorative aspects such as scroll work, floral or faunal frieze, kīrtimukhas and such other additional ornamentations are typically Khmer. 13The present article considers few of the Vaiṣṇava images and a rare Nṛttamurti-Śiva for exemplification.
This work examines the etymological significance of the various terms in Sanskrit and Tamil that denote a temple, residence or gateway.In the mainland Tamilnadu gṛha (meaning house or temple) is a commonly employed terminology in Pallava period inscriptions, e.g., Ādivarāhaviṣṇu-gṛha, Atiyendraviṣṇu-gṛha (see also Jeyapriya ( 2004): 292-96).
Briggs (1951a) (25 and 55) mentions an undated Sanskrit inscription of Jayavarmaṉ I that mentions Kāñcīpuram as Pallava capital.The Pallavas made the ultimate influence on the culture of Indonesia and Indo-China.
In Buddhism, kīrtimukha refers to the opening of the chaitya-hall, initially the term kīrti denoted an excavated rock-cut chaitya-hall, and during the Gupta period it stood as a symbolic element to ward off evil (Ranasinghe, L. (1991/2): 140).The kīrtimukha in Southeast Asian visuals clearly indicates the origin from the Hindu religion.The well-established trade links between India and the Bali region, from first century onwards through the Buddhists and later the Hindus, the transportation was not a mere goods but also the religious imageries by the Indian traders, which got syncretized into the indigenous culture.The South Indian pearl trade was one of the major links with the Southeast Asia (Stuart-Fox, M. ( 2000  Two examples of reclining Viṣṇu are reported herein.One is found on the lintel (Marcus (1968): 321-30) of the Prasat Kamphaeng Yai, Thailand Figure 3.The Lord Viṣṇu is found reclining on the serpent couch supporting his head with the bent left arm.The snake's coil is single and extends leftward.The five hoods of Ādiśeṣa or Ananta are prominently shown above the head of Raṅgaśāyī.14Brahmā is found seated on the lotus emanating from the Lord's umbilicus.Garuḍa with an awkward face and tongue peeping out is seated near the Lord's feet.He is in a peculiar, seated posture with the right leg bent at knee and rested on earth and the left knee bent and erect.
"Horde of diamonds was interlaced with bunches of rubies for making a little swing in molten gold.Thou the little-master, Kṛṣṇa, it was created for Thee by Brahmā.The Dwarf with little penis be rocked in the cradle by the recital of lullabies; Thou that measured the worlds, be asleep." It is interesting to note that the Tiruviḷaiyāṭaṟ Purāṇam narrates an episode in which Śiva sells rubies, 'Māṇikkamviṟṟapaṭalam' (Parañcōti Episode 17, Rajarajan and Rajarajan, J. ( 2013 Khmer pattern.The headgear appears to be a cap-like jaṭāmakuṭa.The image is fourarmed and seems to carry the kamaṇḍalu and puṣtaka in the left hands.The objects in right hands are not clear.The Lord has just started measuring the worlds as Vāmana and has not reached the level of Trivikrama.The right leg is lifted and placed on the hands of Mahābali.To the left Sukrācārya is found seated.Below the legs few fishes are found which means it represents the netherworld to which place Bali was sent at the end of the striding activity.The aedicule on either side is decorated with scroll work and foliages that very much gets closer to Hoysala decorative work (Settar (1991): II, figs.83-88, Foekema (1994): Fig 12).In the upper part are found four ṛṣis seated in utkuṭikāsana and hands held in añjalibandha.Tassels move on either side of the aedicule at the far end of which Garuḍa-like figures with elongated beaks seated on leogriffs appear.Upon the tassels hamsas are found flapping their wings. 21These may symbolically suggest the "wisdom" that the Lord promises to his adherents (cf. the Nālāyiram verse n. 7).
In Indian art Vāmana usually appears a bālaka-brahmacāri (Ganeshram (2010): fig.CP XV-6) holding an umbrella and puṣtaka.He is not engaged in striding action.In the present Khmer image, he is doing it.This is the novelty of the theme.The image is said to be in Koh Ker style and dated around c. 640 CE.
Kāḷiyamardana: An array of wood-carvings Figure 12 on the Māriyammaṉ Temple tēr 'temple car', Peṇṇakkōṇam, 23 Perampaḷur District depicts five separate panels in a row.The panel runs as Garuḍārūḍa 'Viṣṇu seated on Garuḍa', Trivikrama with the left leg on the head of Mahābali, the typical wood carved Kāḷiyamardana 'Kṛṣṇa dancing on the single headed Kāḷiya and holding the tail of the snake', Trivikrama with the left leg on a creeper, and Mahābali with añjali pose receiving Vāmana.The panels run from right to left, it is very interesting to note the Kāḷiyamardana scene is accommodated in between the recurring Vāmana Trivikrama panels.The depiction of kīrtimukha in each of the panels correlates with the lintel panels of the South-east Asian samples.

Dance of Śiva:
A gorgeous scene of the Dance of Śiva is portrayed in the Sikhoraphum Temple, Surin Figure 13. 24The central figure in this illustration is Śiva dancing the caturam, a mode popular with early medieval South India as may be found in Ellora Caves XX and XXIX, Badāmī Cave I, Paraṅkuṉṟam and other places (Kalidas (2006): II, pls.xxxv. 1, xliii.2, c. 1).The Lord is endowed with ten arms that expand on both sides in a circular form.The left leg is planted on earth and right slightly lifted in kuñcita mode, thus forming a caturam. 25The pedestal upon which the Lord dances is supported by swans.Below the swans a kīrtimukha is found.To the right and left are For exact location of the image, see https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/944/thailand/buri-ram/muang-tam-temple, Figure 11.
Peṇṇakkōṇam is a small hamlet that lies on the off-road, three kilometers from the Tiruci-Ceṉṉai National highways, Perampaḷur District, Tamil Nadu.The tēr 'temple car' is at present located in the Māriyammaṉ Temple of the Peṇṇakkōṇam village, but, the tēr has nothing to do with the Māriyammaṉ Temple.The tēr consists of more than seventy panels of Vaiṣṇava themes, there is minor Viṣṇu temple and a Śiva temple in the village.Neither the tēr nor the panels are reported.
found Kālī, Viṣṇu, Brahmā and Gaṇapati.On either side of the kīrtimukha six dancing divinities are present. 26To the upper left the Kiratārjunīyam episode from the Mahābhārata is illustrated in miniature relief (Rajarajan (2021a): 355-366).To the upper right Śiva perhaps is fighting with a demon.

Figure 13
Figure 13 Dance of Śiva, Sikhoraphum, Surin, Thailand On the whole this lintel image is one of the most illuminating in the entire range of South and South Asian art.In my opinion, it seems to have been inspired by the Tēvāram (6.227.10)hymns in one of which Nāvukkaracar has the following to say: Kōvāyavintiraṉ nuḷḷiṭṭārākak Kumaraṉum vikkiṉ Vināyakaṉṉum pūvāyapīṭattu mēlayaṉṉum pūmiyaḷantāṉum pōṟṟicaippap pāvāya viṉṉicaikaḷ pāṭiyāṭip pāriṭamuntāmum parantupaṟṟi… (Kalidos 1996: 34).
The hymn says the Lord danced to the tune of the music generated by Indra, Kumaraṉ/Murukaṉ, Vigna-Vināyaka, Ayaṉ/Brahmā and Pūmiyaḷantāṉ (one who measured the worlds, i.e., Trivikrama/Viṣṇu).In addition to these that the corpus prescribes, the Khmer artist has taken the privilege of inducting several other luminaries and mythical events such as the six additional dancing divinities and Kiratārjunīyam in this revealing picture of the Dance of Śiva. 27 The present study is incomplete.There are several other specimens that I have collected such as Śiva and Devī seated on the bull (Vṛṣabhārūḍa; Rajarajan (1996): 305-310), Dancing Kāla, Indra seated on an elephant, Airāvata, that has heads facing the cardinal directions and so on. 28These images constitute a milieu in the history of Khmer sculpture and the syncretistic forms in the evolution of Southeast Asian art (Briggs (1951), Lavy (2003)).Scholars may differ in opinion with either the Sanskritic (Havenon 2006(Havenon /2007: 91) : 91) or Tamil (Wheatley (1974); James (2011):21-22, 220;Feneley et al. (2016): 287) influence was predominate in Hindu visual

Figure 3
Figure 3 : Chap.I,Gail (2012): figs.38-45, 47 and 64, Rajarajan et al.  (2017b): 162-164, figs.49, 53, 116-119).The presence of three Devīs is a very rare occurrence.15The root for this idea is found in the Tamil Nālāyiram:Piṉṉaikol Nilamakaḷkol Tirumakaḷkol (Tiruvāymoḻi 6.5.10)Tirumakaḷum maṇmakaḷum āyamakaḷum cērntāṉ (Tiruvantati 1. 42) Uṭaṉamar kātal makaḷir tirumakaḷ maṇmakalāyar Maṭamakaḷ eṉṟivar mūvarāḷum ulakamum mūṉṟē (Tiruvāymoḻi 1.9.4)These verses clearly state the Devīs of the Lord are Piṉṉai, Nilamakaḷ or Maṇmakaḷ (Bhūdevī) and Tirumakaḷ (Śrīdevī).The last verse is very important because if states when the Lord is united with the three, he represents the three worlds and that he is the Cosmic Principle(Kalidos (2012)).This is a clear case of the ideological influence of the Tamil Nālāyiram in the sculptural work of Thailand.In my opinion a Tamil sculptor familiar with the Nālāyiram must have sculpted this image.Sanskrit literature, either the canon or corpus, does not link three Devīs with Śeṣaśāyī.Scholars who examined the image earlier have rarely noted the three Devīs and did not point out their importance.Another interesting image of reclining Viṣṇu on the Reachisey is from Prasat Phanom Rung Figure4.16It appears on the northern pediment of the temple.The image is four-armed, the back right hand supporting the head.The front left hand holds a gadā, rested on earth.The front right arm is laid up on the body.What is interesting is the face in Mongolian anatomical mode.The headgear and garments are in typical Khmer style.