Original Article

Self-Esteem and Academic Achievement Among High School Students in Imphal East District, Manipur

 

 

INTRODUCTION

In today’s educational environment, academic achievement has emerged as a tool to measure where the individual stands. Student’s current learning status as well as future prospects was assessed through the lens of his or her academic performance. Across the educational system, excellence in academic achievement was perceived as one of the primary educational goals, as it becomes the widely accepted benchmark through which students’ potentials are examined. For adolescents, particularly at the high school stage, academic performance influences the students in constructing a stable perception of their abilities and weaknesses.

Among the many determinants that influence academic achievement, self-esteem occupies a vital position. Self-esteem refers to the overall perception of abilities and limitations of an individual. Although it may not directly visible to the outside world but often shows up a discipline, discipline and persistence, which are the essential attributes for academic success. Students with high self – esteem tend to be confident, willing and resilient even when facing academic challenges. However, students with low self – esteem may often fall in the vicious loop of self-doubt which can slow their academic progress.

 Numerous studies explored that the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement is reciprocal, as low self -esteem can weaken a student’s desire to learn and repeated poor performance may lower the self – esteem. On the other side, a positive spiral can be created between high self -esteem and academic achievers, as high self – esteem acts as a positive reinforcing factor for academic success. Recognizing the importance of this relationship, the present study’s focus is on understanding self-esteem and its association with academic achievement among high school students in Imphal East District, Manipur.

 

Significance of the Study

Self-esteem has been widely recognized as a crucial psychological element which is associated with key parts of human behaviour such as emotional regulations, social acceptance and interpersonal relationship. Individuals with high level of self-esteem tend to be emotionally stable, confident and have positive attitude towards life. On the contrary, low self-esteem often can lead to a negative self-perception which can affect both personal and academic functioning. In the field of education, self-esteem of a student exhibits in the form of readiness, perseverance and positive approach to learning tasks.

During adolescence, academic achievement plays an important factor in the development of a positive self -image Erikson (1968). However, different studies show that the relationships between these variables are not always consistent across different educational contexts. Therefore, the present study attempts to give context spectrum insights by including students from diverse socio-economic background including orphanages. The study attempts to help the policymakers in creating inclusive educational policy.

 

Objectives

General Objective of the Study

To study the level of self-esteem among high school students in Imphal East District.

 

Specific Objectives of the Study

1)     To compare the self-esteem of male and female high school students.

2)     To examine differences in the self-esteem of high school students with regard to school difference.

3)     To assess differences in the self-esteem of high school students based on student status (non-orphan and orphan).

4)     To analyze differences in the self-esteem of high school students with regard to school management.

5)     To examine differences in the level of self-esteem among high school students with regard to their present place of residence (home, rented home, hostel and orphanage).

6)     To examine differences in the level of self-esteem among high school students with regard to their academic achievement.

7)     To investigate the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement among high school students.

 

Hypotheses of the Study

H₀₁: There is no significant difference in the self-esteem of male and female high school students.

H₀₂: There is no significant difference in the self-esteem of high school students with regard to school difference.

H₀₃: There is no significant difference in the self-esteem of high school students based on student status (non-orphan and orphan).

H₀₄: There is no significant difference in the self-esteem of high school students with regard to school management.

H₀₅: There exists no significance differences in the level of self-esteem among high school students with regard to their present place of residence (home, rented home, hostel and orphanage).

H₀₆: There is no significant difference in the level of self-esteem among high school students with regard to their academic achievement.

H₀₇: There is no significant relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement among high school students.

 

Delimitations of the Study

The study will be limited to the high school students (Class IX and X) of selected schools within the Imphal East District of Manipur. Therefore, the findings may not be generalizable to other districts or states. The cross-sectional nature of the study will identify a correlation between the variables but will not establish a cause-and-effect relationship.

 

Method and Tools used in the Study:

The present study aims to examine the self-esteem of among high school students. To achieve this aim, a descriptive survey research design was adopted. A self-constructed sociodemographic sheet was employed for the study. The examination result of the past annual examination was used as the indicator of academic achievement. The Rosenberg Self‑Esteem Scale Rosenberg (1965) was employed to measure the self-esteem of the students. to measure the internal consistency of the scale the researchers calculated the reliability coefficient obtained through Cronbach’s alpha (α = .698) indicated acceptable internal consistency for the scale.

 

Procedure of Data Collection

Permission was obtained from the school authorities prior to data collection. The researcher personally visited each selected school and explained the purpose of the study to the students. The self-esteem scale and personal data sheet were administered in a classroom setting under the researcher’s supervision. Students were assured of confidentiality and encouraged to respond honestly. Academic achievement data were collected from the school examination records after obtaining necessary approval. All responses were checked, coded, and organized systematically for analysis.

Statistical tools such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics and Pearson’s correlation coefficient, were employed for data analysis and interpret meaningfully.

 

Population, Sample and Sampling method:

Students enrolled in Class IX and X in high schools located in Imphal East District are the population of the study. A total sample of 144 female students and 40 male students (n=184) was drawn using simple random sampling, representing a diverse mix of learners from different social categories and school environments. The study employed a stratifies simple random sampling technique. Based on accessibility and administrative permission schools were selected. Students willing to participate and present on the day of data collection and were included in the sample.

 

Table 1 Sample of the Study
School	Number of Students
RK Sanatombi Devi Vidyalaya	95
SL Arena of Learning	48
Ananda Singh Higher Secondary School	24
Ch Iboyaima High School	17
Total	184
The Sample Included 144 Female Students and 40 Male Students

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

This section presents the detailed analysis and interpretation of the data collected for the study. The results are organized according to the specific objectives formulated. Both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques have been applied to examine.

General Objective of the Study

To study the level of self-esteem among high school students in Imphal East District.

 

Table 2 Self-Esteem Level Distribution
Category	N	%	Mean	Std. Deviation
High Self-Esteem	135	73.40%	1.27	0.46
Average Self-Esteem	48	26.10%
Low Self-Esteem	1	0.50%

 

 

 

Interpretation: As shown in the Table 3, out of the total sample, a majority of students (73.4%) fall under the high self-esteem category, indicating that most high school students in Imphal East District possess a strong sense of self-worth and confidence. This group shows a mean score of 1.27 with a standard deviation of 0.46, suggesting moderate variability in their responses but overall consistency in high self-esteem levels. Meanwhile, 26.1% of students exhibit average self-esteem, reflecting a balanced but less confident self-perception. Only 1 student (0.5%) was identified with low self-esteem, which is statistically negligible in the overall distribution.

H₀₁: There is no significant difference in the self-esteem of male and female high school students.

 

Table 3 Group Statistics for Self Esteem by Gender
Gender	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean
Female	144	27.22	3.97	0.33
Male	40	28.1	3.51	0.55

 

 

Table 4 Independent Samples t-Test for Self Esteem by Gender
Test	F	Sig.	t	df	Sig. (2‑tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% CI Lower	95% CI Upper
Equal variances assumed	0.04	0.84	–1.277	182	0.2	–0.885	0.69	–2.252	0.48
Equal variances not assumed	—	—	–1.370	69.32	0.18	–0.885	0.65	–2.173	0.4

 

Figure 3

 

Interpretation: Table 3 and Table 4 compared the self-esteem score between female and male students to examine whether gender played a role in shaping students’ self perceptions. Female students (n = 144) reported a mean self esteem score of 27.22 (SD = 3.97), while male students (n = 40) showed a slightly higher mean of 28.10 (SD = 3.51). Although males scored marginally higher, the difference between the two groups was small. Levene’s test confirmed that the variances were similar across genders (F = 0.040, p = .841), allowing the assumption of equal variances. The independent samples t test further indicated that the difference in mean scores was not statistically significant, t (182) = –1.28, p = .203. The confidence interval for the mean difference (–2.25 to 0.48) included zero, reinforcing that gender does not meaningfully influence self esteem levels among the students. Overall, the findings suggest that both female and male students possess comparable levels of self esteem. Thus, the null hypothesis (H₀₁) stating there is no significant difference in the self-esteem of male and female high school students is retained.

H₀₂: There is no significant difference in the self-esteem of high school students with regard to school difference.

 

Table 5 Descriptive Statistics of Self Esteem Scores Across Schools
School	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error	95% CI (Lower)	95% CI (Upper)	Min	Max
RK Sanatombi Devi Vidyalaya	95	27.42	3.63	0.37	26.68	28.16	13	35
Ch. Iboyaima High School	17	28.82	3.64	0.88	26.95	30.7	23	33
Ananda Singh Higher Secondary School	24	27.04	3.3	0.67	25.65	28.44	20	34
SL Arena of Learning	48	27.06	4.65	0.67	25.71	28.41	18	38
Total	184	27.41	3.88	0.29	26.84	27.97	13	38

 

 

Table 6 ANOVA Summary for Self Esteem Scores Across Schools
Source	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Between Groups	43.03	3	14.34	0.95	0.417
Within Groups	2715.4	180	15.09
Total	2758.43	183

 

 

 

Interpretation: A one way analysis was conducted to compare the self esteem scores of students across four schools in Imphal East District. Table 5 values show that mean self esteem scores were relatively similar across institutions.

Students from RK Sanatombi Devi Vidyalaya (n = 95) recorded a mean self esteem score of 27.42 (SD = 3.63), with a 95% confidence interval ranging from 26.68 to 28.16. Students from Ch. Iboyaima High School (n = 17) showed a slightly higher mean score of 28.82 (SD = 3.64), with a confidence interval of 26.95 to 30.70. Students from Ananda Singh Higher Secondary School (n = 24) had a mean score of 27.04 (SD = 3.30), with a confidence interval between 25.65 and 28.44. Students from SL Arena of Learning (n = 48) reported a mean of 27.06 (SD = 4.65), with a confidence interval of 25.71 to 28.41. Taken together, the distribution and mean scores indicate that self-esteem among high school students in the district is generally strong, with most students demonstrating high self-esteem and very few showing signs of low self-worth.

Across all schools combined (N = 184), the overall mean self esteem score was 27.41 (SD = 3.88), with a standard error of 0.29 and a 95% confidence interval ranging from 26.84 to 27.97. Scores ranged from 13 to 38, indicating a wide distribution of self esteem levels among students.

A one way ANOVA was conducted to determine whether self esteem scores differed significantly across the four schools Table 6. The analysis revealed that the differences in mean self esteem scores were not statistically significant, F(3, 180) = 0.95, p = .417. This indicates that students’ self esteem levels did not vary meaningfully based on the school they attended.

Self esteem scores were comparable across the four schools, with no statistically significant differences observed. Although minor variations in mean scores existed, these differences were not large enough to suggest that school type had an impact on students’ self esteem. So, the null hypothesis stating there exists no significance difference is not retained.

H₀₃: There is no significant difference in the self-esteem of high school students based on student status (non-orphan and orphan).

 

Table 7 Group Statistics for Self Esteem by Student Type
Student Type	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean
Non‑Orphan	173	27.39	3.9	0.3
Orphan	11	27.64	3.7

 

Table 8 Independent Samples t Test for Self Esteem by Student Type
Test	F	Sig.	t	df	Sig. (2‑tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% CI Lower	95% CI Upper
Equal variances assumed	0.06	0.8	–0.201	182	0.84	–0.243	1.21	–2.632	2.15
Equal variances not assumed	—	—	–0.211	11.47	0.84	–0.243	1.15	–2.769	2.28

 

 

 

Interpretation: Self esteem scores were compared between non orphan and orphan students (Table 7). Non orphan students (n = 173) had a mean self esteem score of 27.39 (SD = 3.90), while orphan students (n = 11) had a slightly higher mean of 27.64 (SD = 3.70). The means were very close, indicating similar self esteem levels across the two groups.

Levene’s test (Table 8) showed that the variances between the groups were not significantly different, F = 0.06, p = .803, supporting the assumption of equal variances. The independent samples t test further showed no significant difference in self esteem between non orphan and orphan students, t(182) = –0.20, p = .841. The mean difference (–0.243) was small, and the 95% confidence interval (–2.63 to 2.15) included zero, confirming the absence of meaningful difference.

Overall, the findings indicate that student type (orphan vs. non orphan) does not significantly influence self esteem levels among high school students in the district. Hence, the null hypothesis (H₀₃) stating there is no significant difference in the self-esteem of high school students based on student status (non-orphan and orphan) is accepted.

H₀₄: There is no significant difference in the self-esteem of high school students with regard to school management.

 

Table 9 Group Statistics for Self Esteem by School Management
Management Type	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean
Government	41	27.78	3.52	0.55
Private	143	27.3	3.99	0.33

 

 

Table 10 Independent Samples t Test for Self Esteem by School Management
Test	F	Sig.	t	df	Sig. (2‑tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% CI Lower	95% CI Upper
Equal variances assumed	0.001	0.971	0.697	182	0.487	0.48	0.689	–0.879	1.839
Equal variances not assumed	—	—	0.747	72.114	0.458	0.48	0.643	–0.801	1.761

 

 

 

Interpretation: The self esteem scores of high school students were compared across two types of school management: government and private (Table 9 and Table 10). Students from government schools (n = 41) had a mean self esteem score of 27.78 (SD = 3.52), while those from private schools (n = 143) had a mean score of 27.30 (SD = 3.99). Although the government school group showed a slightly higher mean, the difference between the two groups was small. Levene’s test indicated that the variances were equal across groups (F = 0.001, p = .971), allowing the use of the equal variance t test. The independent samples t test revealed that the difference in self esteem between government and private school students was not statistically significant, t(182) = 0.697, p = .487. The 95% confidence interval for the mean difference (–0.879 to 1.839) included zero, confirming the absence of a meaningful difference. Therefore, the null hypothesis (H₀₄), which states that there is no significant difference in the self esteem of high school students with regard to school management, is retained.

H₀₅: There exists no significance differences in the level of self-esteem among high school students with regard to their present place of residence (home, rented home, hostel and orphanage).

 

Table 11 Descriptive Statistics of Self Esteem by Present Place of Residence
Place of Residence	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error	95% CI Lower	95% CI Upper	Min	Max
Home	127	27.57	3.83	0.34	26.9	28.25	18	38
Rented Home	11	28.91	3.21	0.97	26.75	31.06	23	33
Hostel	35	26.26	4.2	0.71	24.82	27.7	13	34
Children Home	11	27.64	3.7	1.11	25.15	30.12	23	33
Total	184	27.41	3.88	0.29	26.84	27.97	13	38

 

 

Table 12 ANOVA Summary for Self Esteem by Place of Residence
Source	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Between Groups	75.25	3	25.08	1.68	0.17
Within Groups	2683.18	180	14.91
Total	2758.43	183

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Interpretation: Self esteem scores were compared across four categories of present place of residence: home, rented home, hostel, and children’s home (Table 13). Students residing at home (n = 127) had a mean self esteem score of 27.57 (SD = 3.83), while those in rented homes (n = 11) showed a slightly higher mean of 28.91 (SD = 3.21). Students living in hostels (n = 35) reported a lower mean score of 26.26 (SD = 4.20), and those in children’s homes (n = 11) had a mean of 27.64 (SD = 3.70). Although the means varied slightly, the overall pattern suggests broadly similar levels of self esteem across residence types.

A one way ANOVA was conducted to determine whether these differences were statistically significant (Table 14). The results indicated no significant difference in self esteem based on place of residence, F (3, 180) = 1.68, p = .172. The confidence intervals for each group overlapped substantially, and the between group variance was small relative to within group variance.

The findings indicate that present place of residence does not significantly influence self esteem among high school students in the sample. Despite minor variations in mean scores, students across all residential settings demonstrated comparable levels of self esteem. Thus, the null hypothesis (H₀₅) stating there exists no significance differences in the level of self-esteem among high school students with regard to their present place of residence (home, rented home, hostel and orphanage) is accepted.

H₀₆: There is no significant difference in the level of self-esteem among high school students with regard to their academic achievement.

 

Table 13 Descriptive Statistics of Self Esteem by Academic Achievement
Academic Achievement	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error	95% CI Lower	95% CI Upper	Min	Max
1st Division	84	27.86	3.77	0.41	27.04	28.67	18	35
2nd Division	69	26.87	4.24	0.51	25.85	27.89	13	38
3rd Division	31	27.39	3.26	0.59	26.19	28.58	19	33
Total	184	27.41	3.88	0.29	26.84	27.97	13	38

 

 

Table 14 ANOVA Summary for Self Esteem by Academic Achievement
Source	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Between Groups	36.963	2	18.481	1.229	0.295
Within Groups	2721.467	181	15.036
Total	2758.429	183

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Interpretation: Self esteem scores were compared across three academic achievement groups (Table 13): 1st Division, 2nd Division, and 3rd Division. Students in the 1st Division (n = 84) had a mean self esteem score of 27.86 (SD = 3.77), while those in the 2nd Division (n = 69) had a slightly lower mean of 26.87 (SD = 4.24). Students in the 3rd Division (n = 31) reported a mean score of 27.39 (SD = 3.26). Although the means varied slightly, the differences were small and showed substantial overlap in confidence intervals.

A one way ANOVA was conducted to determine whether these differences were statistically significant (Table 14). The results indicated no significant difference in self esteem across the three academic achievement groups, F(2, 181) = 1.23, p = .295. The between group variance was minimal compared to the within group variance, suggesting that academic division does not meaningfully influence self esteem.

Self esteem levels among high school students do not differ significantly based on academic achievement (1st, 2nd, or 3rd Division). Despite minor variations in mean scores, students across all achievement levels demonstrated comparable levels of self esteem. Thus, the null hypothesis (H₀₆) which states there is no significant difference in the level of self-esteem among high school students with regard to their academic achievement is retained.

H₀₇: There is no significant relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement among high school students.

 

Table 15 Descriptive Statistics and Pearson Correlation Between Self Esteem and Academic Achievement (N = 184)
Variable	Mean	SD	1	2
1. Self‑Esteem Total Score	27.41	3.88	1	−0.073
2. Academic Achievement	1.71	0.74	−0.073	1
Sig. (2‑tailed)	—	—	—	0.323
N	184	184	184	184
Note. SD = Standard Deviation. Pearson Correlation Coefficients are Shown Above the Diagonal, Significance Values are Shown Below

 

Interpretation: Table 15 presents the descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation between self-esteem and academic achievement among high school students. The mean self-esteem score was M = 27.41 (SD = 3.88), indicating generally moderate to high levels of self-esteem in the sample. The mean academic achievement score was M = 1.71 (SD = 0.74), reflecting mid level performance on the three division scale.

The Pearson correlation coefficient between self-esteem and academic achievement was r = −0.073, a weak negative relationship that was not statistically significant (p = .323). This suggests that variations in self-esteem were not associated with corresponding changes in academic achievement. In practical terms, students with higher or lower self-esteem did not differ meaningfully in their academic performance.

Given that the obtained p value exceeds the .05 significance threshold, the null hypothesis - stating that there is no significant relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement among high school students is accepted. Thus, the findings indicate that self-esteem does not function as a significant correlate or predictor of academic achievement in this sample. So, the null hypothesis (H₀₇) stating there is no significant relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement among high school students is not rejected.

 

Major Findings and Discussion

The findings of the present study show the overall level of self- esteem among high school students was high, as 73.4% of the students exhibit high self-esteem, 26.1% show average self-esteem, and only 0.5% fall under low self-esteem. This suggests that most students possessed a high sense of self-worth and it can be further enhanced through a supportive academic environment.

Similarly, the academic achievement of high school students in Imphal East District was average. The finding showed that majority of students fall within the second division category. Their academic performance indicates that there was neither extreme underachievement nor exceptionally high achievement among most students.

With regard to the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement, Pearson’s correlation analysis revealed a very weak negative relationship (r = −0.073). This indicates that higher self-esteem not necessarily led to better academic achievement. Therefore, other factors such teaching methods, curriculum and learning environment may also have influenced the academic achievement rather than self-esteem alone.

Gender-wise comparisons further revealed that there was no statistically significant difference in self-esteem between male and female students. Similarly, no significant difference was found in academic achievement between male and female students. This indicates that gender does not play a substantial role in influencing either self-esteem or academic performance.

Residential -wise comparisons in the study revealed that student’s residential settings do not have a significant influence on the self – esteem. Similarly, orphan and non-orphan shows similar levels of self – esteem. The study further revealed no significant difference in self-esteem across type of school and school management.  This suggests that similar educational environment as well as common learning experiences may have minimized the disparities among the students.

Overall, the results highlight that the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement is not reciprocal. This indicates that other instructional and contextual factors also play a key role in the academic success of a student.

 

Conclusion

The present shows that the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement is neither direct nor linear. This indicated that differences in the level of self-esteem do not necessarily correspond with better academic achievements of the students. Overall, the study found that the need of educators and policy makers  to adopt a holistic approach for addressing students emotional and academic needs. Strengthening supportive school environment can contribute to overall well-being of the students, especially those from diverse socio-economic backgrounds, including those in institutional care.

  

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

None.

 

REFERENCES

Al-Zoubi, S. M., and Younes, M. A. B. (2015). The Relationship Between Self-Esteem and the Academic Achievement of Umm Al-Qura University Students. International Journal of Education and Social Science, 2(12), 1–13.

Arshad, M., Zaidi, S. M. I. H., and Mahmood, K. (2015). Self-Esteem and Academic Performance Among University Students. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(1), 156–162.

Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., and Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(1), 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.01431

Branden, N. (1994). The Six Pillars of Self-Esteem. Bantam Books.

Coopersmith, S. (1967). The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. W. H. Freeman.

Crocker, J., and Wolfe, C. T. (2001). Contingencies of Self-Worth. Psychological Review, 108(3), 593–623. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.593

Devi, M. S. (2017). Self-Esteem and Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in West Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh. International Journal of Advanced Educational Research, 2(4), 132–135.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. W. W. Norton and Company.

Greenwald, A. G., and Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to Measure Self-Esteem and Self-Concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 1022–1038. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.1022

Harter, S. (1999). The Construction of the Self: A Developmental Perspective. Guilford Press.

James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology (Vols. 1–2). Henry Holt. https://doi.org/10.1037/10538-000

Marsh, H. W., and Craven, R. G. (2006). Reciprocal Effects of Self-Concept and Performance from a Multidimensional Perspective: Beyond Seductive Pleasure and Unidimensional Perspectives. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(2), 133–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00010.x

Mruk, C. J. (2006). Self-esteem Research, Theory, and Practice: Toward a Positive Psychology of Self-Esteem (3rd ed.). Springer Publishing.

Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications, and Theory. Houghton Mifflin.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400876136

Rosli, Y., Othman, H., Ishak, I., and Lubis, S. H. (2017). The Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Academic Achievement Among Nursing Students. Education in Medicine Journal, 9(2), 65–72. https://doi.org/10.21315/eimj2017.9.2.7

Santrock, J. W. (2018). Adolescence (17th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-Being. Free Press.

Tafarodi, R. W., and Swann, W. B. (2001). Two-Dimensional Self-Esteem: Theory and Measurement. Personality and Individual Differences, 31(5), 653–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00169-0

Twenge, J. M., and Campbell, W. K. (2002). Self-Esteem and Socioeconomic Status: A Meta-Analytic Review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR06013

University of Maryland, Department of Sociology. (2025). Using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.

Wani, M. A. (2018). A Study of Self-Esteem and Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students. The International Journal of Indian Psychology, 6(1), 164–170. https://doi.org/10.25215/0601.018