Literary Translation and Varied Perspectives in Literature

 

Dr. Mahendra Kumar ¹

 

¹ Associate Professor, Department of English D.N. P.G. College, Gulaothi, Bulandshahr, U.P., India

 

1. INTRODUCTION

Literary translation is not merely the act of transferring text from one language to another; rather, it has developed as an essential aspect of human interaction, driven by cultural exchanges throughout history. The role of translation has been steadily growing, particularly in recent decades, as it has become a crucial tool not only for facilitating communication among people from different nations but also for shaping political, cultural, and social developments. Over the past fifty years, translation has played a significant role in the dissemination of knowledge across the world, enabling greater familiarity with global cultural, societal, and political systems. As the field of translation has evolved, its analysis has increasingly gained importance within academia. However, for a long time, translation studies primarily followed a linguistic approach, with scholars traditionally viewing the source text as authoritative while considering translations as secondary or derivative. Since the 1970s and 1980s, the study of translation has expanded to include historical, ideological, and societal perspectives, leading to its recognition as a distinct academic discipline.

The idea of translation as rewriting has further contributed to the growth of the field, emphasizing the need to analyze both source and target texts within their cultural and ideological contexts. This broader perspective has encouraged scholars to examine translations in relation to social dynamics. Additionally, new approaches have emerged, focusing on the relationships between authors, texts, and readers, as well as the literary systems of both the source and target languages. These approaches also consider various sociological factors, such as publishing and reception. More recently, translation studies have been increasingly linked to fields such as cultural studies and feminism, reflecting the discipline’s expanding scope. The concept of achieving equivalence between the original and translated text remains a fundamental objective, ensuring that translations maintain the essence and impact of the source material.

 

2. Features and Roles of Translation

Equivalence in translation is achieved when the translated text evokes the same emotions and associations in its readers as the original text does in its audience. Translation Studies has developed into a well-established interdisciplinary field that extends beyond linguistic concerns. The second half of the twentieth century saw the emergence of numerous theoretical contributions that laid the foundation for Translation Studies as an academic discipline. Translation is widely regarded as both a reading and writing practice, as well as a medium for cultural exchange across the world. Various critical studies on translation theory examine the challenges and possibilities of translation, particularly within academic contexts. In recent years, Translation Studies has evolved, shifting its focus toward the translation of literary texts from multiple perspectives. One framework categorizes the field into four main areas: translation approaches (such as cultural and linguistic perspectives), translation theories (including general and polysystem theories), research methods (such as descriptive and empirical studies), and applied translation studies (which include translation criticism, evaluation, and didactics). Among these, applied translation studies have gained prominence, emphasizing the assessment and critique of translated literature. The present study explores the evaluation and criticism of translations of Anna Karenina in English and Telugu, comparing the target language (Telugu) text with the source language (English) text based on reader responses. While the primary focus is on assessing the selected translations, it also considers broader theories and perspectives that support the evaluation of translation. Literary translation is not merely the act of transferring text between languages; rather, it has developed as a necessity driven by cultural interactions. Translation has played a vital role in communication and the exchange of knowledge throughout history. Over the past five decades, it has also influenced political, cultural, and societal developments. The transmission of knowledge across the world heavily relies on translation, enabling global familiarity with different cultures, social structures, and political systems.

With Translation Studies emerging as a distinct academic discipline, analyzing translation from various perspectives has become essential. However, for a long time, translation evaluation was largely confined to linguistic analysis. Earlier scholars considered the source text as authoritative, often viewing translation as derivative or secondary. From the 1970s and 1980s onward, translation studies expanded to incorporate historical, ideological, and societal perspectives, contributing to its recognition as an academic discipline. The concept of translation as rewriting also gained significance during this period, emphasizing the analysis of both source and target texts within their cultural and ideological contexts. This approach encouraged scholars to examine translations from a broader social perspective. Additionally, a new analytical framework emerged in the 1980s, focusing on the relationship between authors, texts, and readers. This framework considered both source and target literary systems, as well as the intentions of authors and translators, along with sociological factors such as publishing. More recently, translation studies have been increasingly associated with cultural studies and feminist perspectives. Equivalence in translation remains a key principle, ensuring that the translated text preserves the meaning and emotional impact of the original. The Skopos Theory, developed in the 1970s, introduced a functional approach, emphasizing the recipient’s culture and the purpose of the translated text rather than purely linguistic concerns. Research in Translation Studies has traditionally focused on assessing the "faithfulness" of translations and determining what is "right" or "wrong" from a linguistic standpoint.

However, since the 1990s, there has been a shift from a textual to a cultural approach. This transformation, described as the "cultural turn" in Translation Studies, has broadened the field to include historical and cultural contexts, acknowledging that meaning is shaped by its surroundings. Later developments in the field introduced a more structured approach to translation evaluation. One notable contribution is a framework for assessing translator decision-making, which has significant implications for translator training and descriptive translation analysis. Several evaluation models have since emerged, including the communicative approach, which focuses on dynamic equivalence between source and target texts, and the functional-pragmatic model, which aims to avoid overly simplistic or one-sided interpretations. A good translation is often defined as one that closely resembles the original text while maintaining clarity in the target language. Another approach distinguishes between literary and non-literary translation, further expanding the scope of translation evaluation. It has been argued that vernacular languages are deeply rooted in their cultural contexts, making direct translation challenging. Some scholars suggest that translation is, at its core, a process of restoring meaning. Various models for translation criticism and evaluation exist, each shaped by different theoretical perspectives. Consequently, translation analysis must be adaptable to different text types and research objectives, reflecting the diversity of approaches within the field.

 

3. Text and Reader

The assessment of literary translation has emerged as a crucial area of study within translation criticism. A review of various evaluation methods in translation reveals that most approaches have historically been language-focused. At this point, it is evident that these perspectives have paved the way for new methods of assessing translation processes. Some changes take place gradually, without public declarations or visible upheavals, just a quiet shift in how things are perceived. A similar transformation has unfolded in literary theory and criticism, where the concept of the "reader," once overlooked, has gained prominence. Over time, literary analysis has moved from an emphasis on the author to a focus on the text itself and, more recently, to the role of the reader. Reader-response criticism prioritizes the reader's interaction with a text, considering the reader an essential participant in shaping meaning. This approach opposes traditional formalist theories, which largely disregard the reader’s interpretative role. Reader-response criticism acknowledges that literature evokes reactions from its audience, which are integral to understanding a work. Even ancient scholars recognized the significance of audience response, particularly in genres like tragedy, where emotional engagement plays a key role.

This perspective explores the diverse ways readers interact with texts and how their personal experiences influence interpretation. Instead of viewing literature as a fixed entity, this approach sees the reader as an active participant in completing and shaping meaning. Different theories within reader-response criticism analyze how texts influence readers while allowing room for personal interpretation. Some argue that texts contain structures that guide responses, yet also leave gaps for the reader to fill. There is often a distinction between an "implied reader"—the reader envisioned by the text—and an "actual reader," who brings unique experiences and perspectives to the reading process. This critical approach seeks to understand how people engage with literature, moving beyond passive consumption to explore the interpretive act itself. In this framework, reading is not a mechanical process but an active exchange between the text and the reader.

 

4. Conclusion

The reader, rather than the author, plays a fundamental role in constructing meaning. Some scholars have suggested that texts function as structures that invite interaction, providing the foundation upon which readers build interpretations. As readers navigate gaps in the text, they shape meaning through their imagination and experiences. This ongoing interaction creates a dynamic process in which the reader oscillates between personal engagement and critical distance. This perspective has significant implications for translation studies. Traditionally, translation assessment has focused on linguistic accuracy, but broader perspectives, including cultural, psychological, and social considerations, are increasingly recognized as vital to the field. The interaction between a text and its reader plays a crucial role in translation, as different audiences bring varied interpretations to a work. Expanding translation studies beyond linguistic analysis to include these diverse perspectives contributes to its growth as an academic discipline.

 

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

None. 

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

None.

 

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