A new theory of particle physics about coupling system and regular multivariate state
1 Department
of Basic Science, Air Force University of Engineering, Xi’an 710051, People’s
Republic of China, China
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ABSTRACT |
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In this paper,
some particle science issues are considered and studied: Why the electric
charge can not be fraction for any particles? Why
composite particles are easy to split and the mass
has decreased? Why the fundamental particles with
identical quantum numbers have the unequal mass? These scientific problems
are solved by establishing new particle theories: The mechanism of regular
multivariate states is proposed to explain the characteristics of fundamental
particles, The coupling theory of particle systems is proposed to explain the
mass characteristics of composite particles. The scientific analysis of these
mechanisms and theories are consistent with the experimental results of many
particles, and according to these mechanisms and theories can derive many new
particles. |
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Received 29 February
2024 Accepted 30 March 2024 Published 15 April 2024 Corresponding Author Hua Ma, mahuar@xjtu.edu.cn DOI 10.29121/granthaalayah.v12.i3.2024.5571 Funding: The author is
grateful to the support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(Grant No. 52272101). Copyright: © 2024 The
Author(s). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License. With the
license CC-BY, authors retain the copyright, allowing anyone to download,
reuse, re-print, modify, distribute, and/or copy their contribution. The work
must be properly attributed to its author. |
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Keywords: Particle Physics, Coupling Theory,
Regular Multivariate State, Fundamental Particle, Composite Particle,
Particle System, Quantum Number, Singularity Number, Hadron, Lepton |
1. INTRODUCTION
The establishment of the standard model of particle physics is one of the important achievements of physics in the 20th century. It can describe the properties of quark, lepton, photon, gluon, intermediate boson, and Higgs particle, as well as the three basic interactions Terasawa & Scholer (1989), Chupp (1990), Ellis & Wilson (2001). At present, there are many research directions in particle physics, such as hadron physics, heavy flavor physics, lepton physics, neutrino physics, accurate test of standard model, symmetry and symmetry destruction, standard model expansion, etc. These works have even played an important role in the study of the evolution of the universe De Yoreo et al. (2015), Wang et al. (2020), Wang et al. (2020), Chris & Roy (1986), Pais (1999). About multidisciplinary scientific researches, some existing excellent scientific theories have been well explained and described Ma (2020), Ma (2017), Ma (2017), Ma (2018), Ma (2020), Ma (2022), Ma (2023), Suggest that all humanity implement sustainable development Ma (2021).
In modern particle physics theory, some scientific problems are difficult to solve: In the description of quark theory, the electric charge can be fraction, but it cannot be found in real experiments, why? In the experiment, it was clearly found that composite particles are easy to split, and the summation mass of component particles is inevitably less than the mass of the original particles, why? Three neutrinos are fundamental particles with identical quantum numbers, but the mass is not equal, why?
Regarding the aforementioned particle science issues that need to be solved, I have been thinking and researching for many years: Firstly, the principle of electric charge eigenstates is proposed to derive the quantum number constraint equation, and fundamentally explain the singularity numbers of composite particles Ma (2020). In this paper, I proposed the mechanism of regular multivariate states to explain the characteristics of fundamental particles, I also proposed the coupling theory of particle systems to explain the mass characteristics of composite particles, The scientific analysis of these mechanisms and theories are consistent with the experimental results of many particles,The detailed analysis and specific expressions are as follows (Emphasis: In this paper, the unit of mass is only positioned in megaelectron volt: MeV).
2. Comprehensive analysis of particle physics
·
Regular multivariate
state theory: For fundamental
particles, the state elements must be regular, so fundamental particle must be
uniformly constructed by several regular state elements in the
three-dimensional state space.
· Particle pair construction mechanism: Two particles with special relationship with each other can form particle pair, The particle pairs have very effective coupling effects, So particle pairs mainly act as components in composite particles, and cannot exist alone in spacetime.
·
Theory of
composite particle systems:
Composite particles are systems composed of fundamental particles, The
construction of the system must have leading and
auxiliary members. Therefore in a composite particle,
Solitary particles can only have one or none, Particle pairs can have
multiple.
·
Coupling
theory of mass variation: The mass
of composite particles is less than the sum mass of component particles, This is because that the component members increase their
mass under the coupling effect, So it is necessary to calculate the mass
variation based on the coupling effect of particles and particle pairs.
2.1. Particle principle and force effects
Symmetry, balance, and electric charge eigenstate are the three Principles of particle science. Symmetry determines the generation of particles; Balance ensures the stability of particles; The electric charge eigenstates establish the quantum number equation of particles and classification of particles.
About weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force, all particles with mass have weak nuclear forces, only hadrons have strong nuclear forces; The common characteristic of these two forces is external absorption and internal repulsion, so any particle must have an equilibrium distance. When two particles interact with each other: If the distance between particles is greater than the equilibrium distance, forming attraction effect; If the distance is less than the equilibrium distance, forming repulsion effect. So, these two forces play a very important role in the composition of composite particles.
The force effects of electric charges are same charge repulsion and different charge attraction, the interaction of electrons has different effects in particles of different systems such as composite particles and fundamental particles, so the analysis of electricity has different effects in different particles and structures.
2.2. Particle system classification theory
Particle system classification: All particles can be classified into two systems: fundamental particles and composite particles, and all composite particles are constructed by fundamental particles. According to the structural characteristics of particles: Fundamental particles belong to only one system; Composite particles can be divided into five subsystems: Eigenstate composite particle, Non eigenstate composite particle, Atomic nucleus, Atomic, Molecule.
In the study of particles, the main focus is on the study of fundamental particles and eigenstate composite particles. Fundamental particles and eigenstate composite particles are achieved through the principle of electric charge eigenstates, the quantum number constraint equation is expressed as follows:
In this paper, for the convenience of expression, is used instead of
,
is used instead of
,
the concept represented is consistent, so the quantum number constraint
equation is expressed as follows:
According to the expression in the above equation (2): For
eigenstate composite particles, the quantum numbers must comply with this
formula; For fundamental particles, the quantum numbers must comply with this
formula and satisfy the condition: .
2.3. Gauge combination theory of composite particles
Composite particles are generated by combining fundamental particles, but the combination of particles is not arbitrary, so we need to propose the gauge theory of particle combinations.
· Fundamental particles: Fundamental particles generate based on the principle that symmetry and balance; Types of fundamental particles are not many: All fundamental particles have weak nuclear forces and universal gravitation, Some fundamental particles have strong nuclear forces and electric forces.
· Particle pairs: Particle pairs are formed from fundamental particles, these particle pairs are formed by positive and negative particles or particles of the same family. Particle pairs cannot exist alone in spacetime, so they are not particles. Particle pairs are organs of composite particles, because particle pairs have significant coupling effects with each other, so coupled particle pairs generate related composite particles under the dominance of the master.
· Component models: Particle pairs and fundamental particles as components of composite particles, in composite particles there two positions: one is the dominant position, and the other is the assisting position. The dominant position is the model that the dominant particle or dominant particle pair express the composite particle type; The assisting position is the model that particle pairs interact to construct composite particle; Moreover there are coupling models between the particle pairs respectively at the dominant position and assisting position.
·
Singularity numbers: Some eigenstate
composite particles have singularity numbers, some eigenstate composite
particles have no singularity numbers, why? According to the gauge combination theory of composite
particles, Singularity originate the ability of certain special particle pairs
for composite particles at the assisting position, So introducing the number of this special particle pair as singularity
number s. Essentially the singularity of composite particles trigger changes in
isospin, So this is the expression of the correlation between the third
isospin component and singularity
number: .
2.4. Mass change theory based on coupling mechanism
The interaction between particles can cause mass
variation, the mass variation is related to particle categories, coupled model
and system structures etc. On the mass variation of composite particles, three
quality coupling models need to be clearly proposed, and the mass variation
rates are closely related to quantum numbers
(i,j).
·
The mass by fundamental particles coupling:
Particle pairs are formed by the interaction of fundamental particles, the category and quantum number of particles have
the coupling effect on the mass increase or decrease. Category effect: Particle
and its antiparticle can couple to increase mass; Particle and its homologous
antiparticle can couple to increase mass. Quantum number effect: ,
,
. For
fundamental particles coupling:
.
·
The mass variation by particle pairs
individual coupling:Under the condition of
individual coupling of particle pairs, the mass variation can be analyzed by these particle description
quantity: Quantum number of particle pairs, The coupling position of
particle pairs, The total numbers of fundamental particles in two particle
pairs, The mass elements of fundamental particles. Possible outcomes:
·
The mass variation by particle
pairs complex coupling: When a pair is in a composite particle or has a
strong interaction with other pairs, The coupling between this particle pair
and other particle pairs is not individual coupling, So
defining this coupling as complex coupling. Essentially the mass variation caused by complex coupling between two
particles is the change of simple mass variation
, this simple mass variation
is mass variation by particle pairs
individual coupling. Based on the relational simple mass variation
, analyzing the state change of particle pairs,
and analyzing the quantum number effect of particle pairs due to different
positions; Thus, the mass variation by particle pairs complex coupling can be
calculated:
.
3. Analysis theory of fundamental particles
3.1. Analysis of regular multivariate states of fundamental particles
Fundamental
particles must have symmetry and conservation, the expression of states must be
quantized, so fundamental particles
must be in a regular multivariate state. Real space is three-dimensional, the
dimension of particle states is also three-dimensional, so can introduce
quantum numbers to respectively
express the number of state
elements, the number of element boundaries and the number of element vertexes.
According to the principles of symmetry, balance and quantization, the regular multivariate states of fundamental
particles are consistent with the regular polyhedron of geometry, so the state
element quantum numbers can be
expressed by Euler formula:
In this expression (3), must be the integers, and
locate the positive multivariate state with three dimension. Furthermore,
introducing quantum numbers
:
is
the boundary quantum number of the state element,
is the vertex quantum number of the
state element. Due to the limitations of three-dimensional states, positive
multivariate mechanism and integer quantum number, the calculation results are
as follows:
According to this calculation results, it can be known
that there are only 5 fundamental particles. Firstly, derive the category of
fundamental particles based on the expression of quantum numbers; For the
fundamental particles with mass, the quantum numbers are explicit: ;
According to the principle of charge eigenstates, the quantum number constraint
equation for eigenstate particles has been derived as follows:
For the convenience of analysis, here we first focus on
deriving the expression of positive particles: The quantum number of positive
fundamental particles is ;
The quantum number i of parity must have a
comprehensive correlation with
,
namely
;
Charge quantum number:
.
According on this theoretical analysis, The relevant
calculations of quantum numbers are as follows:
According to the derivation of the above equation(6)and
the expression of quantum number constraint equation (5),
it is clear that: represents Leptons,
represent
Hadron; And in the expression of leptons:
represent
Electron,
represent Neutrino.
Under the condition of clear quantum number and category
of particles, the analysis of specific particles need to be derived from the
expression of mass. Here I propose the theory of mass analysis: In the positive multivariate state, the
state element and the mass element are consistent, n is the number of
boundaries of mass element, so the mass of a state element is directly
proportional to its area; Under these conditions, according to the
calculation method of geometric surface elements, the area of a state element
is expressed as follows:
We already know that is electron, and the mass of electron is
,
so assuming
;
By substituting this experimental value into the equation above, the area of
the state element can be calculated:
The mass is related to and
,
specifically
is direct proportion in the
comprehensive effect about mass, however the effect of F is related to
.
So the mass of a fundamental particle is a
comprehensive effect by quantum number
,
number of state element
,
and boundary number of state element
.
The comprehensive expression of the association between these number is as
follows:
In the expression of the above equation (10), is the index of 10. Defining the area
of the state element as mass element.
Introducing
as the mass unit, so
is
introduced as the unit adjustment value. Under these inferences, the expression
of mass is
,
the calculations are as follows:
Compare the calculated and experimental values of mass,
and according to the expression of fundamental particle quantum numbers: It can
be confirmed that: is three neutrinos
,
is
electron
,
and
is
fundamental neutron
;
It is known that
are four leptons, so can be inferred from
that
and
are fellow particles. On the
fundamental particles of the eigenstate,
describe positive particle,
describe antiparticle. For positive particles
and antiparticles of the same kind: quantum numbers are opposite, the mass is
equal; therefore, only 10 fundamental particles, which are expressed as
follows:
3.2. The theory of pairs formed by fundamental particles interaction
The theory of pairs
formed by fundamental particles
interaction: Two fundamental
particles can form particle pair
through interaction, the performance of particle pair is determined by the
effects of interaction. The interaction effects of fundamental particles
need to be analyzed from three aspects: (1) Force effect: Under the action of strong and weak forces,
particles can form an equilibrium state; Under conditions dominated by
electricity, electrons with the same charge repel and cannot approach each
other, electrons with different charges are infinitely close and lose each
other. (2) Similar particle
effects: The interaction effect and
equilibrium state between the same kind particles are effective, especially positive
particles and antiparticles are more
effective. (3) Cognate particle
effect, There
is also a familial relationship among particles of the same kind, typical
particles are electron and electric neutrino , this group of particles can effectively
form particle pairs. Considering these three effects comprehensively, two
typical particle pairs can be predicted.
P-A pair: positive
particle and its antiparticle can generate pair under the action of strong or
weak forces, so the coupling between particle and its antiparticle is expressed
as P-A Pair. The interaction force between positive and negative electrons is a
combination of electric force and weak force, and electric force is stronger
than weak force, therefore positive and negative electrons disappear with each
other to produce photons when they approach infinitely, so cannot generate P-A
Pair.
Based on the analysis of the above theory, in these 10 elementary particles can generate 4 P-A pairs.
(13)
E-C pair:
charged elementary particle and its cognate antiparticle
can form particle pair, which is expressed as
E-C pair. The quantum number of E-C pair is (-1, 0, -1) or (1, 0, 1). The E-C
pair of electrons plays a significant role in the construction of composite
particles, the expression of E-C pair is as follows:
Performance
analysis of particle pairs: According
to the expression of the quantum number constraint equation, the quantum
numbers of these 6 particle pairs are exactly the expression of Bose hadron
quantum numbers, whether these pairs have hadron properties remains to be analyzed. Firstly, it is clear that the
P-A pair generated by Fermi hadron
must
be Bose hadron, so whether the P-A pairs generated by leptons have hadron
properties need to be analogized with
:
According to the
analysis of the above equation (15), only has the hadron effect, so this particle pair
can have two positions in composite particles: in the dominant position which
represent the model of Bose hadrons, described as
; and in the assisting position which
represent the particle singularity, described as
. Obviously: These two types of particle
pairs based on fundamental particles, composite
particles mainly contain 4 particle pairs:
4. The mass coupling effect of particle interactions
The interaction between particles can cause mass variation, the mass variation is related to particle categories, environmental model, and system structures etc. On the mass variation of composite particles, three quality coupling models need to be clearly proposed, and the mass variation rates are closely related to quantum numbers (i, j), so we firstly propose this general expression about mass:
In the expression
of the above equation (17), is
the mass variation of paired coupling of fundamental particles and the separate
coupling of particle pairs,
is
the mass variation of the complex coupling of particle pairs and composite
particles, the specific analysis and calculation are as follows.
4.1. Theoretical calculation of mass for particle pairs formed by fundamental particles
P-A pair and E-C pair are formed by the interaction of fundamental particles, the category and quantum number of particles have the coupling effect on the mass increase or decrease. The specific expression based on particle category and quantum number is as follows:
·
Mass calculation of E-C pairs is as follows:
· Mass calculation of P-A pairs is as follows:
4.2. The mass change caused by individual coupling of two particle pairs
The particle pairs in composite particles have two positions: one is the dominant position, and the other is the assisting position. For the convenience of expression in the following formulas: D-P represent the dominant position, and A-P represent the assisting position.
Under separate coupling conditions of these four particle
pairs, are
in assisting position A-P,
is in the dominant position D-P. So, the
change in mass of particles under individual coupling conditions varies
depending on their positions. The derivation of the change in mass due to the
coupling of particle pairs is as follows:
· Mass variation by coupling of positive and negative electron pairs
· Mass variation by coupling of electron pair and singularity pair
· Mass variation by coupling of singularity pair and singularity pair