UNDERGRADUATE AGRICULTURE EDUCATION IN NEPAL: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW

Higher education is perceived as a capital outlay and a potential transformer of the socio-economic and cultural development of a nation. Nepal has a very brief history of modern educational systems which traces back to 1959 when Tribhuvan University was established as the first university in the country. Though the formal education in agriculture began in 1968 with the upgrade of the School of Agriculture into the College of Agriculture launching a two-year Intermediate of Science in Agriculture program, the institutes offering the undergraduate-level Bachelor of Science in Agriculture are recorded to stretch out only after the 1990s. The trend of establishment of undergraduate agricultural colleges has faced many ups and downs but the highest number of agricultural colleges were found to be established in the year 2018 i.e., 10. In the current situation, seven universities and their thirty-three constituent and affiliated colleges are offering bachelor’s degree in agriculture. Regardless of the ample expansion of agricultural institutes throughout the country, agricultural education is still an underrated subject in comparison to other fields. There is limited information available about the current status of the agricultural education system in Nepal; in fact, the secondary-level graduates lack proper information and guidance related to higher education in agriculture. This paper explores the history of agricultural education in Nepal; trend of agricultural institutional development; quota distribution, eligibility criteria and admission procedures for undergraduate studies in different universities; and has been prepared with a motive to shed light on agricultural academics, and guide students who are seeking a bright future in the agriculture sector.


INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the mainstay of livelihood for the majority of the population in Nepal with the direct engagement of around 66 percent of people in the agricultural sector Ghimire et al. (2021).It is a way of life; a religion Timilsina (2021) for Nepalese as the agriculture in the nation has been shaped by cultural and traditional beliefs passed down through generations.Agriculture is the foundation for economic and social transformation in Nepal.According to the MoF (2020), agriculture contributes 25.8 percent to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country thus, is considered the major backbone of the Nepalese economy.The 124

HISTORY OF AFRICULTURE EDUCATION IN NEPAL
Agriculture education in Nepal dates back to 1937 when the first vocational agriculture school was started.However, formal education in agriculture started in 1957 AD when the first school 'The School of Agriculture' was established in Putali Bagaincha of Kathmandu as a part of the Department of Agriculture to train lowerlevel technical manpower called Junior Technical Assistants (JTAs).Realizing the fact that trained field extension workers were lacking for agriculture development, the school was later upgraded to the College of Agriculture in 1968 and a two-year Intermediate of Science in Agriculture degree program was initiated to produce middle-level technical manpower called Junior Technicians (JTs) in Jagadamba Bhawan of Lalitpur district.In 1972 with the introduction of the 'new education system' in the country, this institute was renamed as Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science IAAS/TU.( 2023) and brought under Tribhuvan University.Later in 1974, this institute was transferred to Rampur, Chitwan About us.(n.d.), Amgain & Adhikari (2022), Background (n.d.).
The trend of establishing agricultural colleges increased following the year of the relocation of IAAS to Chitwan.It started Lamjung Campus at Sundarbazar of Lamjung and the Paklihawa Campus at Paklihawa of Rupandehi as two satellite campuses in 1975 and1978, respectively IAAS/TU. n.d.).Similarly, the Bachelor of Education in Agriculture began in 1977/78.Later in 1984/85, a three-year Bachelor of Science in Agriculture program was initiated to further provide higher education to the students completing the Intermediate of Science in Agriculture, especially from government offices; and a five-year Bachelor of Science in Agriculture program was launched targeting the School Leaving Certificate (SLC) students from 1988 to 1993.Simultaneously, a four-year Bachelor of Science in Agriculture program focusing on the students who completed their Intermediate of Science in Agriculture began from 1992/93 onwards Amgain & Adhikari (2022).
The two-year Intermediate of Science in Agriculture was phased out from IAAS in 2001.During that time, the Lamjung and Paklihawa Campuses of IAAS were running two years of initial semesters of four years of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture.The four-year Bachelor of Science in Agriculture program was launched at these satellite campuses of IAAS only after the amalgamation of the Rampur Campus to the Agriculture and Forestry University in 2013 Amgain & Adhikari (2022).Moving back to history, in 1995, the National Planning Commission formed the first nine-member committee which suggested the establishment of a single university combining Agriculture and Forestry.Though different committees were formed at different times to address the issue, a final five-member committee was formed in 2007 which suggested combining Agriculture, Forestry, and Food Technology into a single university.This committee ultimately resulted in the establishment of the Agriculture and Forestry University at Rampur, Chitwan in 2010 AFU (n.d.-b).
Over the course of time, several government and private academic institutes have been established to aid quality education in the field of agriculture.Currently, agriculture education in Nepal is operating in two different ways; a) Universities, which offer degree-granting programs in agriculture, and b) Technical schools and Polytechnics, which offer a mix short of short and long-term training programs in agriculture and related fields.The allocation of colleges in different parts of the country has helped in diffusion of the agricultural education to remote rural areas.

UNIVERSITIES OFFERING BACHELOR DEGREE OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture is a four-year undergraduate degree program after completion of an Intermediate level (2 years) of education in Science or Agriculture or a relevant field.This degree program aims to train academically competent and practical-oriented professional agriculturists and is offered by different constituent and affiliated colleges of seven universities namely, Tribhuvan University (TU), Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU), Purbanchal University (PU), Far Western University (FWU), Kathmandu University (KU), Mid-West University (MWU), and Madesh Agricultural University (MAU).

AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY UNIVERSITY (AFU)
Agriculture and Forestry University was founded in 2010; and it is the first university in Nepal that is based on a land grant model similar to that of the US, which conducts instruction via teaching, research, and extension programs for agricultural and forestry development in the country Paudel et al. (2013).This university is formed by merging Rampur Campus, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), and Forestry Campus, Hetauda of the Institute of Forestry of Tribhuvan University.This university is considered as the second-generation university which addresses the current needs by exploiting its specific and standard organizational structure, academic programs, and curricula developed by highly qualified professionals.

FAR-WESTERN UNIVERSITY (FWU)
Far Western University launched the Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Agriculture in the academic year 2018 under the Faculty of Agriculture Science at Tikapur Multiple Campus of Kailali district Amgain & Adhikari (2022).The agriculture course at FWU has been designed to impart the best quality education in Agriculture and its sub-branches to ultimately contribute to producing qualified professionals in the field.

KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY (KU)
The School of Science under Kathmandu University launched a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (B.Sc.Ag.) under the Department of Life Sciences in 2020 Amgain & Adhikari (2022).This interdisciplinary program encompasses many different aspects of agriculture.Courses usually include the study of plant science, animal science, soil and pesticides, weed management, agricultural extension, ecology, natural resources management, horticulture, farming system, and production technology.

MID-WEST UNIVERSITY (MU)
Mid-West University launched the undergraduate course in Agriculture under the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry at Birendranagar of Surkhet in 2021.

MADHESH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY (MAU)
Madhesh Agricultural University was founded in 2021 in Rajbiraj, Saptari of Madhesh Province.It is the first autonomous agricultural university in the Madhesh Province launched under the Madhesh Agricultural University Act 2079.This university offers a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (Hons.)program MAU (2021).

QUOTA DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT UNIVERSITIES
The universities which offer Bachelor of Science in Agriculture degree enroll students once a year under different categories and are referred to as Quota.There are different types of Quotas, and a definite number of students are provided admission under each quota.The major aim of classifying the available seats into different categories is the inclusion of students coming from remote areas, disadvantaged communities, indigenous groups, victims of wars and conflicts, those Salina Maharjan, and Tikaram Dhakal International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH 128 facing extreme levels of poverty, and many more.Though the universities have defined the numbers of enrollment under each quota, they have been reported to increase these numbers every year, leading to the increase in the average rate of enrollment in the subsequent years.
The allocation of seats differs from university to university and even college to college.The Agriculture and Forestry University announced a call for 584 students under different quotas for its eight constituent colleges and the Department of Agriculture at Rampur in 2079/80 (Table 1) where 234 seats were for Merit students; 70 for students of the same province; 14 for each Dalit, Janajati, and Madhesi; 11 for each differently-abled and conflict victims; 10 for each martyr family; 25 for women; 18 for full paying residents; 10 for full paying staff quota and 12 concession fee for staff; and 141 for full paying UDF/CDF (University and College Development Fund).Hence, a total of 162 intakes were announced for Agriculture Department, 54 for each college at Kaski, Sinduli, Kailali, Dhankuta, Mahottari, and Dailekh; and 49 for Banke, Rolpa.In the case of private colleges, each college called for 50 students in the same year.Similarly, or IAAS called for 360 students under similar quotas for its five constituent colleges in 2079/80 Table 2.The seat provision was made in such a way that 121 were Merit quota; 9 for women which were sub-classified as Open, Dalit, and Muslim; 7 for indigenous; 6 for Madhesi, further classified into Open and Dalit; separate 4 seats for each Dalit, and differently-abled students; 1 for Muslim; 5 for Tharu; 3 for students belonging to remote districts; 60 for IDF (Institutional Development Fund); 6 for residents.Moreover, there were 6 seats reserved for families of staff working in the university which was divided into concession fee (3) and full fee (3).A total of 124 seats were classified as Annex quota and 4 as other quotas.Regarding the affiliated colleges, the number of intakes announced in each affiliated college and program was 50.Amgain & Adhikari (2022).The university does not have a provision for Quota but evaluates the students' eligibility for admission by giving some preferences to students coming from Dalit, indigenous, Madhesi, Muslim, disadvantaged remote areas, martyr's families, differently abled students, war or conflict victims, women, financially weak and under poverty, etc. Table 5.
Kathmandu University intakes 30 students each year under two categories; Open or Merit-based 27 and Reserved 3 based on KU provision KU (2021a).Similarly, a total of 100 students are admitted annually to Far-Western University which is categorized as 25 scholarship seats and 75 paying seats BSc Ag All Colleges List of Nepal with their Total Seats, Total Scholarship Seats, Quota Scholarship Seats & Paying Seats Information.( 2022).Mid-West University announces 48 seats for students annually where 6 are scholarship and 42 are full-paying seats Edusanjal (2023).
The Madhesh Agricultural University admits a total of 50 students annually where 10 are merit quota; 1 each Madhesh Province, Dalit, Adibasi Janajati, differently abled, martyr family, war victims, female, staff and local quota; and 31 University/College Development Fund Table 3. Source MAU (2022b)

PROCEDURE OF APPLICATION AND ADMISSION 3.5.1. ELIGIBILITY
The eligibility of a student to apply for the program differs with the university.Each university has defined a different set of criteria that a student should meet to be qualified for the application process.Though the criteria differ from university to university, there is a common thread; all of them need the students to have completed their intermediate level Table 4.

ENTRANCE EXAMINATION
Passing an entrance examination is a requisite for acceptance in the undergraduate degree program.Interested students have to take and pass this test conducted by the universities they are interested in attending.The call for applications usually starts from Kartik/Mangsir and the test is scheduled 1-2 months after the announcement.Every university has its exam syllabus where Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) are asked.The questions cover different topics in these subjects: English, Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Zoology, Math, General Knowledge and Agriculture studied at the intermediate level.However, the number of questions from each subject differs between the universities.The total marks for the test in AFU are 120 AFU (2022) whereas 100 for TU IAAS/TU.(2022), PU PU. (2021a), FWU (Notice for BSc Ag, FWU (Far Western University) Entrance Exam Appearing Students!, 2021) and MAU MAU (2022b) it is 100 Table 5.  (2021b).The questions are distributed uniformly across the topics of the syllabi provided by KU.Each subject syllabus has 40 topics, and one question is asked from each topic.CBT offers many advantages over PBT which include a larger score range, reduction of risk of unfair practice, automatic scoring, and flexibility in conducting tests.
In recent years, many institutions have been established that tutor students to prepare them for these entrance examinations.Vibrant, Name, NIMS, Web, and Orbit are among the popular ones.

ADMISSION
The students who pass the entrance examination are evaluated for their eligibility to get admitted.Admission is decided on the merit list prepared by the universities based on the marks secured in the entrance examination.However, the evaluation differs between the universities.
The basis for admission eligibility is somewhat similar in AFU and IAAS.The entrance examination weighs 100%, and an applicant must secure a minimum of 50% to pass the test.The admission offer list is published on a merit basis.If applicants secure equal marks in the entrance examination, the total percent/grade obtained in the I.Sc./10+2 examination (CGPA) followed by the total percent/grade obtained in SEE/SLC is considered.If the percent/grade of SEE/SLC is also equal then the percent/grade of subjects studied in10+2 or equivalent are considered for the merit list.The subjects are Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, and Math in AFU, whereas, in IAAS they are Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, English, and Math.
The KU offers admission on merit based on CBT score (rank) for both open and reserved (quota) seat categories.The score of 480 is benchmarked as the minimum threshold (pass mark) KU (2021b).The students shall at least obtain this score to be eligible for admission.
The evaluation in PU is done on a scale of 100% out of which the different categories are considered Table 6.However, the candidates who are unable to score a minimum of 33% in the entrance examination conducted by PU are not considered for evaluation.The pass mark for the entrance examination in FWU is 50 out of 100.Admission is based on the merit list.The entrance merit list is based on 80% of entrance scores out of 100, 10% of SEE, and 10% of +2/I.Sc.Ag.While for Madhesh Agricultural University, the students must score at least 40% to pass the entrance examination.If applicants secure equal marks in the entrance examination, the total percent/grade obtained in the I.Sc./10+2 examination (CGPA) followed by the total percent/grade obtained in SEE/SLC, and then, marks obtained in Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Physics, Math is considered MAU (2022b).

SCHOLARSHIP SCHEME IN PU, FWU, AND KU
As per the scholarship provision 2078 of PU, there is an arrangement to provide a 10 percent (5 percent Open and 5 percent Reserved) scholarship.The open scholarship is provided to the candidates of the first semester scoring the highest marks in the entrance examination.These students get a scholarship of 80% of the total annual/semester fee as declared by their respective colleges.Similarly, the reserved scholarship is provided to 5% of the total students admitted to the respective colleges.Dalit, Janajati, Rural, differently abled, Female, economically weak, Martyr family, war victims, Madhesi, Muslim, etc. are given chances to fight for the reserved scholarship.These students do not need to pay fees other than fees for registration and exam.
The Faculty of Agriculture at the FWU offers a 25% scholarship to one/one student from the eight districts of the Far Western Development Region.Of the 8 earmarked scholarships, two are reserved for women, two for men, two seats for children of the working staff, two each from students from the so-called Dalit community, Madhesi community, Janajati community, Local community (Tikapur area), and 1 each for the differently abled person and person from a backward community Table 7.
Nepal has seen a drastic change in agricultural academics regarding the establishment of agricultural institutions in different parts of the nation.Since the inception of Rampur Campus in 1972 through 2003, one agricultural institute was established in each 1975, 1978, and 2003.The total number of institutions offering agriculture reached 12 in 2016 with the addition of two institutions each in years 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2016.A visible change was observed in 2017 when four more agricultural colleges initiated the program.In 2013/14, Rampur Campus at Chitwan stopped admitting new students Amgain & Adhikari (2022) and the program was continued by the Central Campus of Rampur under AFU (2022).The year 2018 can be celebrated as a golden era for agricultural educational development, characterized by a notable increase in agricultural institutions.Specifically, 10 new agricultural institutions were added to the roster in the year, among which six were AFU affiliated private colleges.Two institutions were started the program in the years 2019 and 2020 each, and four more were added in 2021.As of 2021, a total of 34 institutions have been offering the program (Figure1).

Figure 1 Figure 1
Figure 1 Paudel et al. (2013)in Agriculture IAAS/TU.(2023).It is the oldest institution for formal training in agriculture in Nepal which provides academic, research, and extension programsPaudel et al. (2013).IAAS runs the agriculture undergraduate program through its constituent and affiliated colleges and programs.LamjungCampus and Paklihawa Campus  established in 1975 and 1978, respectively, arethe first colleges under IAAS to offer agriculture courses.In 2018, it launched an agriculture degree program in Rampur Campus located at Khairahani of Chitwan district and Gauradaha Agriculture Campus of Jhapa as its constituent colleges.Besides these colleges, IAAS has provided affiliation to different colleges at different times to expand agriculture education.The Agriculture and Animal Science Community Campus at Gokuleshwor of Baitadi district was established in 2011; the Campus of Life Sciences at Tulsipur of Dang, and Prithu Technical College at Lamahi of Dang was established in 2013; the Nepal Army Agriculture Science Campus at Bagalegaon of Lamjung established in 2021 are the affiliated colleges of IAAS offering the program.Similarly, the Bachelor of Science in Horticulture at Mahendra Ratna Multiple Campus of Ilam is an IAAS-affiliated program launched in 2012 Amgain & Adhikari (2022), BSc Ag All Colleges List of Nepal with their Total Seats, Total Scholarship Seats, Quota Scholarship Seats & Paying Seats Information.(2022).
Strengthening the educational program, it established the College of Natural Resource Management as a constituent college at Puranchaur of Kaski district in 2016 AFU (n.d.-a).Following this establishment, it has expanded its constituent colleges to Pakhribas of Dhankuta district, Kapilakot of Sinduli, Tikapur of Kailali in the year 2017; Bardibas of Mahottari in 2018; Madichaur of Rolpa and Khajura of Banke in 2019; and Dullu of Dailekh in 2020.Agriculture and Forestry University, in 2018, provided affiliation to six private colleges viz., Bright Mid-Western Agriculture and Forestry Science Campus at Birendranagar of Surkhet district, Valley Agriculture Campus at Chapagaun of Lalitpur, Ramnagar Technical and Management College at Sunwal of Nawalpur, Purbanchal Agriculture Campus at Gauradaha of Jhapa, Jibika Agriculture Science College at Itahari of Sunsari, Gorkha United Public School under project Gorkha Polytechnic College and Research Centre at Baijnath of Banke About us.(n.d.), and Himchhaya College at Gaidakot of Nawalparasi BSc Ag All Colleges List of Nepal with their Total Seats, Total Scholarship Seats, Quota Scholarship Seats & Paying Seats Information.(2022).Faculty of Science and Technology under Purbanchal University has been offering B.Sc. (Honors) Agriculture program.Similar to IAAS and AFU, this university is also offering agricultural courses for undergraduates through its constituent and affiliated colleges.Girija Prasad Koirala College of Agriculture and Research Centre (GPCAR) at Gothgaun of Morang district is the only constituent college under this university established in 2017.The degree program was later expanded to the Himalayan College of Agriculture Science and Technology (HICAST) of Kathmandu, Nepal Polytechnic Institute (NPI) at Bharatpur of Chitwan, and Ilam Community Agriculture Campus of Ilam in 2003, 2011, and 2021 respectively via affiliation Amgain & Adhikari (2022).

Table 1 Undergraduate Quota Distribution in AFU 2079/80
and other organizations who have done MOU with AFU; those students need not sit for the entrance examination.The enrollment number for Private Colleges is defined based on the recommendation of the Monitoring Report.Source AFU (2022) Undergraduate Agriculture Education in Nepal: A Comprehensive Review International Journal of Research -GRANTHAALAYAH 129

Table 2 Table 2 Undergraduate Quota Distribution in IAAS 2079/80
The Purbanchal University in 2079/80 announced a total of 336 seats for undergraduate studies where Nepal Polytechnic Institute, Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology called for 96 each; and G.P. Koirala College of Agriculture and Research Centre, and Ilam Community Agriculture Campus for 48 ***The admission in mentioned quota will be based on the agreement between the respective campus and local government.Note 10% scholarship quota and local quota are also included in the defined number of enrollments (50).

Table 4 Required Qualifications for Application to Different Universities Universities Eligibility TU
A minimum of 50% in each subject of English, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Math anda 'C+' (2.4 CGPA/GPA) in aggregate in 10+2 Science or I.Sc.(Agriculture or Animal Science or Forestry) or Equivalent level.

Table 5 Table 5 Entrance Examination Syllabus in Different Universities
The students aspiring to study at Kathmandu University have to appear in Kathmandu University Common Admission Test (KUCAT-CBT) which is a computerbased mode called Computer Based Test (CBT) conducted in KU Main Campus Dhulikhel.Candidates have to choose the PCB (Physics, Chemistry, and Biology) test group which consists of 40 MCQs from each subject for a total of 120 marks KU